A campfire is a fire lit at a campsite, usually in a fire ring. Campfires are a popular feature of camping, particularly among organized campers such as Scouts or Guides. Without proper precautions they are also potentially dangerous. A certain degree of skill is needed to properly build a campfire, to keep it going, and to see that it is properly extinguished.
The dangers
A campfire may burn out of control in two basic ways: on the ground or in the trees. Dead leaves or pine needles on the ground may ignite from direct contact with burning wood, or from thermal radiation. Alternatively, airborne embers (or their smaller kin, sparks) may ignite dead material in overhanging branches. This latter threat is less likely, but a fire in a branch will be virtually impossible to put out without firefighting equipment, and may spread more quickly than a ground fire. Hence, many campgrounds include fire rings to prevent this from occurring.
Embers may simply fall off of logs and be carried away by the air, or they may be ejected at high speed by exploding pockets of sap. With these dangers in mind, some places prohibit all open fires, particularly during times of the year that are prone to wildfires.
Campfires are prohibited in many public camping areas. Public areas with large tracts of woodland usually have signs indicating the level of fire danger, which usually depends on recent rain and the amount of deadfalls or dry debris; when the danger is highest, all open fires are prohibited. Even in safer times, it is common to require registration and permits to build a campfire. Such areas are often kept under observation by rangers, who will dispatch someone to investigate any unidentified plume of smoke.
Finding a site, and other safety measures
Ideally, every fire should be lit in a fire ring. If a fire ring is not available, a temporary fire site may be constructed. One way is to cover the ground with sand, or other soil mostly free of flammable organic material, to a depth of a few inches. Fire rings, however, do not fully protect material on the ground from catching fire. Flying embers are still a threat, and the fire ring may become hot enough to ignite material in contact with it. Generally, one must simply stand away from the ring to prevent injury.
No fire should be lit close to trees, tents or other fire hazards. This includes overhanging branches; some carry dead, dry material that can ignite from a single airborne ember. In addition, a fire may harm any roots under it, even if they are protected by a thin layer of soil. Conifers run a greater risk of root damage, because they lack taproots and their roots run close to the surface.
Fires also should not be lit on bare rocks. The ash will leave a black stain that cannot be easily removed, but the fire's heat can lead to more dramatic consequences. It will cause the outer layer of the rock to expand, possibly causing it to crack. It may also boil pockets of water contained in the rock.
An additional safety measure is to have sand and water on hand to smother and douse the fire if it does get out of the fire pit. It is wise to gather these materials before they are actually needed.
Types of fuel
There are, by conventional classification, three types of material involved in building a fire without manufactured fuels.
Tinder is anything that can be lit with a match. One of the best natural tinders is birch bark or cedar bark, where available, followed by dead, dry pine needles or grass; a more comprehensive list is given in the article on tinder.
Kindling is an arbitrary classification including anything bigger than tinder but smaller than fuelwood. In fact, there are gradations of kindling, from sticks thinner than a finger to those as thick as a wrist. A quantity of kindling sufficient to fill a hat may be enough, but more is better.
Fuel can be different types of timber. Timber ranges from small logs two or three inches across to larger logs that can burn for hours. It is typically difficult to gather without a hatchet or other cutting tool. In heavily used campsites, fuelwood can be hard to find, so it may have to be brought from home or purchased at a nearby store.
Pitchwood
Pitchwood from a fir stump can be found in the temperate rainforests of the Pacific Northwest of the United States. Fir trees, especially the Douglas fir, wil leave stumps in the ground when they die. These stumps contain spires of resine-impregnated wood which can easily be lighted using only a single match or lighter. "To identify pitchwood, first look for an old snag stub...Along with the red, rotten wood, you will find veins of solid wood radiating out between the rotten wood areas. There also may be spikes of sound wood sticking up above the rotten wood. Take your knife and whittle a shaving. Smell this shaving. If it has a penetrating, turpentive odor, you have found some pitchwood. Also, look around the base of the snag stub; there may be pieces of pitchwood that have fallen off during the process of decay. Pitchwood is heavy, and will have a reddish to black color, depending on the amount of resin or pitch that the wood contains." By shaving the pitchwood into small splinters, it will readily ignite. Pitchwood does not absorb water, and so will ignite in any weather when sheltered from rain and wind.
The gathering of fuel in natural areas is often restricted. Cutting of living trees is almost always forbidden - but neither is it very useful, because sap-filled wood does not burn well. Squaw wood (dead parts of standing trees) may also be prohibited. Wood lying on the ground is usually permitted.
Building the fire
Having found a suitable site and gathered materials, the fire-builder has a variety of designs to choose from. A good design is very important in the early stages of a fire. Most of them make no mention of fuelwood - in most designs, fuelwood is never placed on a fire until the kindling is burning strongly.
The tipi fire-build is perhaps the best, but it is takes some patience to construct. First, the tinder is piled up in a compact heap. The smaller kindling is arranged around it, like the poles of a tipi. For added strength, it may be possible to lash some of the sticks together. A tripod lashing is quite difficult to execute with small sticks, so a clove hitch should suffice. (Synthetic rope should be avoided, since it produces pollutants when it burns.) Then the larger kindling is arranged above the smaller kindling, taking care not to collapse the tipi. A separate tipi as a shell around the first one may work better. Tipi fires are excellent for producing heat to keep you warm.
A lean-to fire-build starts with the same pile of tinder as the tipi fire-build. Then, a long, thick piece of kindling is driven into the ground at an angle, so that it overhangs the tinder pile. The smaller pieces of kindling are leaned against the big stick so that the tinder is enclosed between them.
A log cabin fire-build likewise begins with a tinder pile. The kindling is then stacked around it, as in the construction of a log cabin. The first two kindling sticks are laid parallel to each other, on opposite sides of the tinder pile. The second pair is laid on top of the first, at right angles to it, and also on opposite sides of the tinder. More kindling is added in the same manner. The smallest kindling is placed over the top of the assembly. Of all the fire-builds, the log cabin is the least vulnerable to premature collapse, but it is also inefficient, because it makes the worst use of convection to ignite progressively larger pieces of fuel.
A variation on the log cabin starts with two pieces of fuelwood with a pile of tinder between them, and small kindling laid over the tops of the logs, above the tinder. The tinder is lit, and the kindling is allowed to catch fire. When it is burning briskly, it is broken and pushed down into the consumed tinder, and the larger kindling is placed over the top of the logs. When that is burning well, it is also pushed down. Eventually, a pile of kindling should be burning between two pieces of fuelwood. The logs will eventually catch fire from it.
Another variation is called the funeral pyre method because it is used for building funeral pyres. Its main difference from the standard log cabin is that it starts with thin pieces and moves up to thick pieces. If built on a large scale, this type of fire-build collapses in a controlled manner without restricting the air flow.
A cross-fire is another variation in which two pieces of fuel wood are placed parallel on the ground with tinder between them. Once the kindling is going strong, alternating perpendicular layers of fuelwood are placed across the two base pieces. This type of fire is excellent for producing coals for cooking.
The traditional Finnish rakovalkea (literally "slit bonfire") is constructed by placing one long piece of fuelwood atop another, parallel and bolstering them in place with four sturdy posts driven into the ground. (Traditionally, whole unsplit tree trunks are used for the fuelwood.) Kindling and tinder are placed between the logs in sufficient quantity (while avoiding the very ends) to raise the upper log and allow ventilation. The tinder is always lit at the center so the bolstering posts don't burn prematurely. The rakovalkea has two excellent features. First, it burns slowly but steadily when lit; it doesn't require arduous maintenance, but burns for a very long time. A well constructed rakovalkea of two thick logs of two meters in length can warm two lean-to shelters for a whole sleeping shift. The construction causes the logs themselves to protect the fire from the wind. Thus, exposure to smoke is unlikely for the sleepers; nevertheless someone should always watch in case of an emergency. Second, it can be easily scaled to larger sizes (for a feast) limited only by the length of available tree trunks.
A keyhole fire is made in a keyhole-shaped fire ring, and is used in cooking. The large round area is used to build a fire in order to create coals. As coals develop, they are scraped into the rectangular area used for cooking.
A "top lighter" fire is built similar to a log cabin or pyre, but instead of the tinder and kindling being placed inside the cabin, it is placed in a tipi on top. The small tipi is lighted on top, and the coals eventually fall down into the log cabin. These fires are often built by youth outdoor movements for "council fires" or ceremonial fires. They burn very predictably, and with some practice a builder can estimate how long they will last. They also don't throw off a lot of heat, which isn't needed for a ceremonial fire. The fire burns from the top down, with the layer of hot coals and burning stubs ignighting the next layer down.
Lighting the fire
Once the fire is built, the next step is to light the tinder, using either an ignition device such as a match or a lighter. A reasonably skillful fire-builder using reasonably good material will only need one match. The tinder will burn brightly, but be reduced to glowing embers within half a minute. If the kindling does not catch fire, the fire-builder must gather more tinder, determine what went wrong and try to fix it.
One of five problems can prevent a fire from lighting properly: wet wood, wet weather, too little tinder, too much wind, or a lack of oxygen. Rain will, of course, douse a fire, but a combination of wind and fog also has a stifling effect. Metal fire rings generally do a good job of keeping out wind, but some of them are so high as to impede the circulation of oxygen in a small fire. To make matters worse, these tall fire rings also make it very difficult to blow on the fire properly.
Steady, forceful blowing may be in order for a small fire in an enclosed space that has mysteriously slowed down, but blowing may extinguish a fire if it is done abruptly or when it is not needed. Most large fires easily create their own circulation, even in unfavorable conditions, but the variant log-cabin fire-build suffers from a chronic lack of air so long as the initial structure is maintained.
Once the large kindling is burning, all of the kindling should be put on the fire, save for one piece at least a foot long. This piece is useful later to push pieces of fuelwood where they are needed. Once all of the kindling is burning, the fuelwood should be placed on top of it (unless, as in the rakovalkea fire-build, it is already there). For best results, two or more pieces of fuelwood should be leaned against each other, as in the tipi fire-build.
Campfire activities
Campfires have been used for cooking since time immemorial. Possibly the simplest method of cooking over a campfire and one of the most common is to roast food on long skewers that can be held above the flames. This is a popular technique for cooking hot dogs or toasting marshmallows for making s'mores. Another technique is to use pie irons — small iron molds with long handles, into which can be placed slices of bread with some form of filling — which are placed over hot coals to cook. However, portable stoves have all but replaced campfires for cooking.
Other practical, though not commonly needed, applications for campfires include drying wet clothing, alleviating hypothermia, and distress signaling.
Most campfires, though, are lit exclusively for recreation. People tend to find something fascinating about flames and glowing coals, so a campfire is usually an agreeable (and warm) way to pass the time from dusk to bedtime, particularly for those in a pensive mood. Campfires are also good venues for intimate conversation and storytelling; yarns and stories about poltergeists are particularly popular. Songs are also usually sung by the fire, a tradition that is usually associated with Scouting. Scouting Songs are popular tunes that are sung all over the country at campfires all summer – and all year – long. Another tradition in most scout outings involving a whole scout district (especially Boy Scouts) is to perform sketch comedy a.k.a. skits.
Another traditional campfire activity involves impaling marshmallows on sticks or uncoiled coat hangers, and roasting them over the fire. Roasted marshmallows may also be used for S'mores.
Ash tradition
The campfire ash tradition exists in Scouting all over the world. There may be an introduction and closing to it at the end of a campfire ceremony or individuals may partake of this tradition on their own.
Lord Robert Baden-Powell, the founder of Scouting and the Chief Scout of the World, used to collect some of the ashes from each Scouting event and carry them with him to the next event. He would mix the ashes of the old fire with the new one. As this tradition has spread, Scouts from around the world have shared campfires and ashes with each other. Lists have been kept of the events where they have been shared. These lists form a history and a bond between Scouts and Scouters over the years; regardless of the distance, language, culture or uniform. These ashes represent the Friendship and Scouting Spirit shared by Scouts and Guides at campfires around the world.
Extinguishing the fire
Leaving a fire unattended is dangerous. Any number of accidents might occur in the absence of people, leading to property damage, personal injury or possibly a wildfire. Ash is a very good insulator, so embers left overnight will only lose a fraction of their heat. It is even possible to restart the new day's fire by using the embers via an igniting device.
Large amounts of water are indispensable for extinguishing a fire. To properly cool a fire, water should be splashed on all the embers, including places that are not glowing red. Splashing the water is both more effective and efficient in extinguishing the fire. The water will boil violently and carry ash in the air with it, dirtying anything nearby but not posing a safety hazard. The water should be poured until the hissing noises stop. Then the ashes should be stirred with a stick to make sure that the water has penetrated all the layers; if the hissing continues, more water should be added. A fire is fully extinguished if the ashes are cool to the touch.
If water is scarce, sand may be used. The sand will deprive the fire of oxygen quite well, but it is much less effective than water at absorbing heat. Once the fire has been covered thoroughly with sand, all water that can be spared should be poured on it, and the sand stirred into the ash.
However, since wetting the pit and/or filling it with sand makes it difficult for the next person to get a clean fire lit, fully extinguishing a campfire in a frequently-used metal or rugged stone firepit is considered poor etiquette. At a popular campground or other location where you expect other people to want to light a fire within two days and where the local fire risk isn't unusually high (ie, if the fire risk is in the blue or green zones) and only when surrounding vegetation is green and healthy rather than dried out, you should cool the firepit rather than fully extinguishing it. A few hours before you vacate the site, extinguish visible flames, preferably by suffocating the flames in their own fuel, or let the fire "run out." Spread the remaining coals around within the confins of the firepit to allow them to cool down. Once the coals are no longer red, it is safe to leave the site.
When winter or "ice" camping with an inch or more of snow on the ground, neither of the above protocols are necessary--simply douse visible flames before leaving.
Finally, in lightly-used wilderness areas, it is best to replace anything that was moved while preparing the fire site, and scatter anything that was gathered, so that it looks as natural as possible. Make absolutely certain that anything that was in or near the fire is fully cooled before following this protocol.
Colored fire
Colored fire is a common pyrotechnic effect used in stage productions, fireworks and by fire performers the world over. Generally, the color of a flame may be red, orange, yellow, or white, and is dominated by blackbody radiation from soot and steam. When additional chemicals are added to the fuel burning, their atomic emission spectra can affect the frequencies of visible light radiation emitted - in other words, the flame will appear a different colour dependent upon the chemical additives.
Pyrotechnicians will generally use metal salts to color their flames. Specific combinations of fuels and co-solvents are required in order to dissolve the necessary chemicals. Color enhancers are frequently added too, the most common of which is polyvinyl chloride.
Flame Colorants
Color Chemical
Carmine (Dark Red) - Lithium chloride
Red - Strontium chloride
Orange - Calcium chloride (a bleaching powder)
Yellow - Sodium chloride (table salt) or Sodium carbonate
Yellowish - Green Borax (Sodium Borate)
Green - Copper sulfate
Blue - Copper chloride
Violet - 3 parts Potassium sulfate, 1 part Potassium nitrate (saltpeter)
Purple - Potassium chloride
White - Magnesium sulfate (Epsom salts)
Campfire Colorants
Flame colorants are becoming popular while camping. Scouts and other outdoor enthusiasts have placed sections of copper pipe with holes drilled throughout and stuffed with garden hose onto campfires to create a variety of flame colors. An easier and more accepted method of coloring campfires has been fueled by commercial products. These packages of flame colorants are tossed onto a campfire or into a fireplace to produce effects.
1. Florence, Italy: This city is a gallery of world-class art and architecture. A curator's dream, the top sights include Michelangelo' s David, Botticelli's Birth of Venus and Brunelleschi' s Duomo. The town itself is a masterpiece: Its bridges, buildings, streets, towers and sidewalks were painstakingly constructed by stonecutters. With its warm trattorias, upscale shops and small luxury hotels, the city is a Tuscan treasure.
2. Buenos Aires, Argentina: The country's capital exudes an air of the exotic, smoky and mysterious that is embodied by its tango salons and sophisticated café life. Now recovering from a period of economic crisis, the city has been called the Paris of South America for its neoclassical buildings on tree-lined boulevards. The Museo del Arte Latinoamericano de Buenos Aires (MALBA), created by young Argentinean architects in 2001, is a symbol of the city's modernity.
3. Bangkok, Thailand: The yin-yang relationship between the old and the new is ever present in Thailand's capital city. Its 10 million residents strive to preserve the past (the Grand Palace) and expand for the future (with high-end shopping and luxury hotel developments that are among the best in Asia). The authenticity of the city's centuries-old culture can be discovered in its narrow alleyways, away from the grinding traffic, where visitors can find silk and handicrafts by local artisans. 
4. Rome, Italy: Once you see the Colosseum, venture to the Via Veneto, visit the Vatican and marinate in the history, art and architecture of the capital, indulge in Rome's la dolce vita. After the sunset casts its colorful glow on the Eternal City, romance fills the night air (take an after-dinner stroll with a loved one to Trevi Fountain or hang out at a surprising hot spot, the Pantheon).
5. Sydney, Australia: The 2000 Summer Olympics introduced Sydney to much of the world, but it has long been Australia's capital for sun and sand. In addition, the city's artistic side is defined by landmarks such as the Sydney Opera House, Sydney Cove and Sydney Harbour Bridge. An international beacon of the good life, this Southern Hemisphere city pulses with a thriving arts scene, fine restaurants and world-class hotels.
7. Udaipur, India: Passage to Udaipur admits one to the "City of Sunrise." This destination—regaled for its temples and utter serenity—is known as India's most romantic city. With 16th-century architecture and timeless beauty, sample itineraries of tranquility might include a cruise on the calming waters of Pichola Lake or an afternoon meandering through fortresses and palaces.
8. Istanbul, Turkey: Straddling Europe and Asia, Istanbul is a city that represents a crossroads of civilizations. The city that connects continents also embraces its differences most tangibly at the labyrinthine Grand Bazaar. Just as complex and monumental are Istanbul's sights, all constructs of 2,500 years of civilization. A visit to Topkapi Palace of the Ottoman dynasty and the Hippodrome built by the Romans should top your historical itinerary. 
9. San Francisco: The City by the Bay's Victorian neighborhoods and charming streetcars are just some of its historic attractions. Its modern-day delights include attending a tasting at one of the trend-setting restaurants or browsing contemporary art at the De Young Museum. The city is a living postcard, with backdrops such as the majestic Golden Gate Bridge and colorful, bustling Chinatown. But what brings back many visitors is its laidback vibe, visible in its lively café and bar scene. 
10. Cape Town, South Africa: Long hailed as an up-and-coming tourist destination, Cape Town continually wins "best of" awards. A mixture of European influences and African ancestry, this town celebrates the land's many bounties with restaurants that pair entrées with cabernet sauvignon from the surrounding wine country. Activities may include escaping to a safari at a game refuge, strolling through the lush Kirstenbosch Botanical Gardens, taking a ride on the Table Mountain Aerial Cableway or playing in the surf off Cape Point.
