a TraVel and TouRism Blog

Most popular cities around the world

2007-11-15T12:03:00.000-05:00

FRANCE, ITALY

1. Florence, Italy: This city is a gallery of world-class art and architecture. A curator's dream, the top sights include Michelangelo' s David, Botticelli's Birth of Venus and Brunelleschi' s Duomo. The town itself is a masterpiece: Its bridges, buildings, streets, towers and sidewalks were painstakingly constructed by stonecutters. With its warm trattorias, upscale shops and small luxury hotels, the city is a Tuscan treasure.

BUENOS AIRES, ARGENTINA

2. Buenos Aires, Argentina: The country's capital exudes an air of the exotic, smoky and mysterious that is embodied by its tango salons and sophisticated café life. Now recovering from a period of economic crisis, the city has been called the Paris of South America for its neoclassical buildings on tree-lined boulevards. The Museo del Arte Latinoamericano de Buenos Aires (MALBA), created by young Argentinean architects in 2001, is a symbol of the city's modernity.

BANGKOK, THAILAND

3. Bangkok, Thailand: The yin-yang relationship between the old and the new is ever present in Thailand's capital city. Its 10 million residents strive to preserve the past (the Grand Palace) and expand for the future (with high-end shopping and luxury hotel developments that are among the best in Asia). The authenticity of the city's centuries-old culture can be discovered in its narrow alleyways, away from the grinding traffic, where visitors can find silk and handicrafts by local artisans.

ROME, ITALY

4. Rome, Italy: Once you see the Colosseum, venture to the Via Veneto, visit the Vatican and marinate in the history, art and architecture of the capital, indulge in Rome's la dolce vita. After the sunset casts its colorful glow on the Eternal City, romance fills the night air (take an after-dinner stroll with a loved one to Trevi Fountain or hang out at a surprising hot spot, the Pantheon).

SYDNEY, AUSTRALIA

5. Sydney, Australia: The 2000 Summer Olympics introduced Sydney to much of the world, but it has long been Australia's capital for sun and sand. In addition, the city's artistic side is defined by landmarks such as the Sydney Opera House, Sydney Cove and Sydney Harbour Bridge. An international beacon of the good life, this Southern Hemisphere city pulses with a thriving arts scene, fine restaurants and world-class hotels.

NEW YORK CITY

6. New York City: Millions of visitors come to Gotham City for an array of reasons. Those who love the arts can watch Broadway stars, glimpse masterpieces at the Met or escape with an opera at Lincoln Center. Foodies may choose from countless menus and mingle with the culinary artists—from mom-and-pop deli owners to star restaurant chefs. Famous Manhattan buildings are also worth seeing firsthand: Stand amid the throngs of sightseers below Times Square's neon billboards or peer down at the Monopoly-game like cityscape from atop the Empire State Building.

UDAIPUR, INDIA

7. Udaipur, India: Passage to Udaipur admits one to the "City of Sunrise." This destination—regaled for its temples and utter serenity—is known as India's most romantic city. With 16th-century architecture and timeless beauty, sample itineraries of tranquility might include a cruise on the calming waters of Pichola Lake or an afternoon meandering through fortresses and palaces.

ISTANBUL, TURKEY

8. Istanbul, Turkey: Straddling Europe and Asia, Istanbul is a city that represents a crossroads of civilizations. The city that connects continents also embraces its differences most tangibly at the labyrinthine Grand Bazaar. Just as complex and monumental are Istanbul's sights, all constructs of 2,500 years of civilization. A visit to Topkapi Palace of the Ottoman dynasty and the Hippodrome built by the Romans should top your historical itinerary.

SAN FRANCISCO

9. San Francisco: The City by the Bay's Victorian neighborhoods and charming streetcars are just some of its historic attractions. Its modern-day delights include attending a tasting at one of the trend-setting restaurants or browsing contemporary art at the De Young Museum. The city is a living postcard, with backdrops such as the majestic Golden Gate Bridge and colorful, bustling Chinatown. But what brings back many visitors is its laidback vibe, visible in its lively café and bar scene.

CAPE TOWN, SOUTH AFRICA

10. Cape Town, South Africa: Long hailed as an up-and-coming tourist destination, Cape Town continually wins "best of" awards. A mixture of European influences and African ancestry, this town celebrates the land's many bounties with restaurants that pair entrées with cabernet sauvignon from the surrounding wine country. Activities may include escaping to a safari at a game refuge, strolling through the lush Kirstenbosch Botanical Gardens, taking a ride on the Table Mountain Aerial Cableway or playing in the surf off Cape Point.

CAMPFIRE

2007-11-05T13:22:00.000-05:00

A campfire is a fire lit at a campsite, usually in a fire ring. Campfires are a popular feature of camping, particularly among organized campers such as Scouts or Guides. Without proper precautions they are also potentially dangerous. A certain degree of skill is needed to properly build a campfire, to keep it going, and to see that it is properly extinguished.

The dangers

A campfire may burn out of control in two basic ways: on the ground or in the trees. Dead leaves or pine needles on the ground may ignite from direct contact with burning wood, or from thermal radiation. Alternatively, airborne embers (or their smaller kin, sparks) may ignite dead material in overhanging branches. This latter threat is less likely, but a fire in a branch will be virtually impossible to put out without firefighting equipment, and may spread more quickly than a ground fire. Hence, many campgrounds include fire rings to prevent this from occurring.

Embers may simply fall off of logs and be carried away by the air, or they may be ejected at high speed by exploding pockets of sap. With these dangers in mind, some places prohibit all open fires, particularly during times of the year that are prone to wildfires.

Campfires are prohibited in many public camping areas. Public areas with large tracts of woodland usually have signs indicating the level of fire danger, which usually depends on recent rain and the amount of deadfalls or dry debris; when the danger is highest, all open fires are prohibited. Even in safer times, it is common to require registration and permits to build a campfire. Such areas are often kept under observation by rangers, who will dispatch someone to investigate any unidentified plume of smoke.

Finding a site, and other safety measures

Ideally, every fire should be lit in a fire ring. If a fire ring is not available, a temporary fire site may be constructed. One way is to cover the ground with sand, or other soil mostly free of flammable organic material, to a depth of a few inches. Fire rings, however, do not fully protect material on the ground from catching fire. Flying embers are still a threat, and the fire ring may become hot enough to ignite material in contact with it. Generally, one must simply stand away from the ring to prevent injury.

No fire should be lit close to trees, tents or other fire hazards. This includes overhanging branches; some carry dead, dry material that can ignite from a single airborne ember. In addition, a fire may harm any roots under it, even if they are protected by a thin layer of soil. Conifers run a greater risk of root damage, because they lack taproots and their roots run close to the surface.

Fires also should not be lit on bare rocks. The ash will leave a black stain that cannot be easily removed, but the fire's heat can lead to more dramatic consequences. It will cause the outer layer of the rock to expand, possibly causing it to crack. It may also boil pockets of water contained in the rock.

An additional safety measure is to have sand and water on hand to smother and douse the fire if it does get out of the fire pit. It is wise to gather these materials before they are actually needed.

Types of fuel

There are, by conventional classification, three types of material involved in building a fire without manufactured fuels.

Tinder is anything that can be lit with a match. One of the best natural tinders is birch bark or cedar bark, where available, followed by dead, dry pine needles or grass; a more comprehensive list is given in the article on tinder.

Kindling is an arbitrary classification including anything bigger than tinder but smaller than fuelwood. In fact, there are gradations of kindling, from sticks thinner than a finger to those as thick as a wrist. A quantity of kindling sufficient to fill a hat may be enough, but more is better.

Fuel can be different types of timber. Timber ranges from small logs two or three inches across to larger logs that can burn for hours. It is typically difficult to gather without a hatchet or other cutting tool. In heavily used campsites, fuelwood can be hard to find, so it may have to be brought from home or purchased at a nearby store.

Pitchwood

Pitchwood from a fir stump can be found in the temperate rainforests of the Pacific Northwest of the United States. Fir trees, especially the Douglas fir, wil leave stumps in the ground when they die. These stumps contain spires of resine-impregnated wood which can easily be lighted using only a single match or lighter. "To identify pitchwood, first look for an old snag stub...Along with the red, rotten wood, you will find veins of solid wood radiating out between the rotten wood areas. There also may be spikes of sound wood sticking up above the rotten wood. Take your knife and whittle a shaving. Smell this shaving. If it has a penetrating, turpentive odor, you have found some pitchwood. Also, look around the base of the snag stub; there may be pieces of pitchwood that have fallen off during the process of decay. Pitchwood is heavy, and will have a reddish to black color, depending on the amount of resin or pitch that the wood contains." By shaving the pitchwood into small splinters, it will readily ignite. Pitchwood does not absorb water, and so will ignite in any weather when sheltered from rain and wind.

The gathering of fuel in natural areas is often restricted. Cutting of living trees is almost always forbidden - but neither is it very useful, because sap-filled wood does not burn well. Squaw wood (dead parts of standing trees) may also be prohibited. Wood lying on the ground is usually permitted.

Building the fire

Having found a suitable site and gathered materials, the fire-builder has a variety of designs to choose from. A good design is very important in the early stages of a fire. Most of them make no mention of fuelwood - in most designs, fuelwood is never placed on a fire until the kindling is burning strongly.

The tipi fire-build is perhaps the best, but it is takes some patience to construct. First, the tinder is piled up in a compact heap. The smaller kindling is arranged around it, like the poles of a tipi. For added strength, it may be possible to lash some of the sticks together. A tripod lashing is quite difficult to execute with small sticks, so a clove hitch should suffice. (Synthetic rope should be avoided, since it produces pollutants when it burns.) Then the larger kindling is arranged above the smaller kindling, taking care not to collapse the tipi. A separate tipi as a shell around the first one may work better. Tipi fires are excellent for producing heat to keep you warm.

A lean-to fire-build starts with the same pile of tinder as the tipi fire-build. Then, a long, thick piece of kindling is driven into the ground at an angle, so that it overhangs the tinder pile. The smaller pieces of kindling are leaned against the big stick so that the tinder is enclosed between them.

A log cabin fire-build likewise begins with a tinder pile. The kindling is then stacked around it, as in the construction of a log cabin. The first two kindling sticks are laid parallel to each other, on opposite sides of the tinder pile. The second pair is laid on top of the first, at right angles to it, and also on opposite sides of the tinder. More kindling is added in the same manner. The smallest kindling is placed over the top of the assembly. Of all the fire-builds, the log cabin is the least vulnerable to premature collapse, but it is also inefficient, because it makes the worst use of convection to ignite progressively larger pieces of fuel.

A variation on the log cabin starts with two pieces of fuelwood with a pile of tinder between them, and small kindling laid over the tops of the logs, above the tinder. The tinder is lit, and the kindling is allowed to catch fire. When it is burning briskly, it is broken and pushed down into the consumed tinder, and the larger kindling is placed over the top of the logs. When that is burning well, it is also pushed down. Eventually, a pile of kindling should be burning between two pieces of fuelwood. The logs will eventually catch fire from it.

Another variation is called the funeral pyre method because it is used for building funeral pyres. Its main difference from the standard log cabin is that it starts with thin pieces and moves up to thick pieces. If built on a large scale, this type of fire-build collapses in a controlled manner without restricting the air flow.

A cross-fire is another variation in which two pieces of fuel wood are placed parallel on the ground with tinder between them. Once the kindling is going strong, alternating perpendicular layers of fuelwood are placed across the two base pieces. This type of fire is excellent for producing coals for cooking.

The traditional Finnish rakovalkea (literally "slit bonfire") is constructed by placing one long piece of fuelwood atop another, parallel and bolstering them in place with four sturdy posts driven into the ground. (Traditionally, whole unsplit tree trunks are used for the fuelwood.) Kindling and tinder are placed between the logs in sufficient quantity (while avoiding the very ends) to raise the upper log and allow ventilation. The tinder is always lit at the center so the bolstering posts don't burn prematurely. The rakovalkea has two excellent features. First, it burns slowly but steadily when lit; it doesn't require arduous maintenance, but burns for a very long time. A well constructed rakovalkea of two thick logs of two meters in length can warm two lean-to shelters for a whole sleeping shift. The construction causes the logs themselves to protect the fire from the wind. Thus, exposure to smoke is unlikely for the sleepers; nevertheless someone should always watch in case of an emergency. Second, it can be easily scaled to larger sizes (for a feast) limited only by the length of available tree trunks.

A keyhole fire is made in a keyhole-shaped fire ring, and is used in cooking. The large round area is used to build a fire in order to create coals. As coals develop, they are scraped into the rectangular area used for cooking.

A "top lighter" fire is built similar to a log cabin or pyre, but instead of the tinder and kindling being placed inside the cabin, it is placed in a tipi on top. The small tipi is lighted on top, and the coals eventually fall down into the log cabin. These fires are often built by youth outdoor movements for "council fires" or ceremonial fires. They burn very predictably, and with some practice a builder can estimate how long they will last. They also don't throw off a lot of heat, which isn't needed for a ceremonial fire. The fire burns from the top down, with the layer of hot coals and burning stubs ignighting the next layer down.

Lighting the fire

Once the fire is built, the next step is to light the tinder, using either an ignition device such as a match or a lighter. A reasonably skillful fire-builder using reasonably good material will only need one match. The tinder will burn brightly, but be reduced to glowing embers within half a minute. If the kindling does not catch fire, the fire-builder must gather more tinder, determine what went wrong and try to fix it.

One of five problems can prevent a fire from lighting properly: wet wood, wet weather, too little tinder, too much wind, or a lack of oxygen. Rain will, of course, douse a fire, but a combination of wind and fog also has a stifling effect. Metal fire rings generally do a good job of keeping out wind, but some of them are so high as to impede the circulation of oxygen in a small fire. To make matters worse, these tall fire rings also make it very difficult to blow on the fire properly.

Steady, forceful blowing may be in order for a small fire in an enclosed space that has mysteriously slowed down, but blowing may extinguish a fire if it is done abruptly or when it is not needed. Most large fires easily create their own circulation, even in unfavorable conditions, but the variant log-cabin fire-build suffers from a chronic lack of air so long as the initial structure is maintained.

Once the large kindling is burning, all of the kindling should be put on the fire, save for one piece at least a foot long. This piece is useful later to push pieces of fuelwood where they are needed. Once all of the kindling is burning, the fuelwood should be placed on top of it (unless, as in the rakovalkea fire-build, it is already there). For best results, two or more pieces of fuelwood should be leaned against each other, as in the tipi fire-build.

Campfire activities

Campfires have been used for cooking since time immemorial. Possibly the simplest method of cooking over a campfire and one of the most common is to roast food on long skewers that can be held above the flames. This is a popular technique for cooking hot dogs or toasting marshmallows for making s'mores. Another technique is to use pie irons — small iron molds with long handles, into which can be placed slices of bread with some form of filling — which are placed over hot coals to cook. However, portable stoves have all but replaced campfires for cooking.

Other practical, though not commonly needed, applications for campfires include drying wet clothing, alleviating hypothermia, and distress signaling.

Most campfires, though, are lit exclusively for recreation. People tend to find something fascinating about flames and glowing coals, so a campfire is usually an agreeable (and warm) way to pass the time from dusk to bedtime, particularly for those in a pensive mood. Campfires are also good venues for intimate conversation and storytelling; yarns and stories about poltergeists are particularly popular. Songs are also usually sung by the fire, a tradition that is usually associated with Scouting. Scouting Songs are popular tunes that are sung all over the country at campfires all summer – and all year – long. Another tradition in most scout outings involving a whole scout district (especially Boy Scouts) is to perform sketch comedy a.k.a. skits.

Another traditional campfire activity involves impaling marshmallows on sticks or uncoiled coat hangers, and roasting them over the fire. Roasted marshmallows may also be used for S'mores.

Ash tradition

The campfire ash tradition exists in Scouting all over the world. There may be an introduction and closing to it at the end of a campfire ceremony or individuals may partake of this tradition on their own.

Lord Robert Baden-Powell, the founder of Scouting and the Chief Scout of the World, used to collect some of the ashes from each Scouting event and carry them with him to the next event. He would mix the ashes of the old fire with the new one. As this tradition has spread, Scouts from around the world have shared campfires and ashes with each other. Lists have been kept of the events where they have been shared. These lists form a history and a bond between Scouts and Scouters over the years; regardless of the distance, language, culture or uniform. These ashes represent the Friendship and Scouting Spirit shared by Scouts and Guides at campfires around the world.

Extinguishing the fire

Leaving a fire unattended is dangerous. Any number of accidents might occur in the absence of people, leading to property damage, personal injury or possibly a wildfire. Ash is a very good insulator, so embers left overnight will only lose a fraction of their heat. It is even possible to restart the new day's fire by using the embers via an igniting device.

Large amounts of water are indispensable for extinguishing a fire. To properly cool a fire, water should be splashed on all the embers, including places that are not glowing red. Splashing the water is both more effective and efficient in extinguishing the fire. The water will boil violently and carry ash in the air with it, dirtying anything nearby but not posing a safety hazard. The water should be poured until the hissing noises stop. Then the ashes should be stirred with a stick to make sure that the water has penetrated all the layers; if the hissing continues, more water should be added. A fire is fully extinguished if the ashes are cool to the touch.

If water is scarce, sand may be used. The sand will deprive the fire of oxygen quite well, but it is much less effective than water at absorbing heat. Once the fire has been covered thoroughly with sand, all water that can be spared should be poured on it, and the sand stirred into the ash.

However, since wetting the pit and/or filling it with sand makes it difficult for the next person to get a clean fire lit, fully extinguishing a campfire in a frequently-used metal or rugged stone firepit is considered poor etiquette. At a popular campground or other location where you expect other people to want to light a fire within two days and where the local fire risk isn't unusually high (ie, if the fire risk is in the blue or green zones) and only when surrounding vegetation is green and healthy rather than dried out, you should cool the firepit rather than fully extinguishing it. A few hours before you vacate the site, extinguish visible flames, preferably by suffocating the flames in their own fuel, or let the fire "run out." Spread the remaining coals around within the confins of the firepit to allow them to cool down. Once the coals are no longer red, it is safe to leave the site.

When winter or "ice" camping with an inch or more of snow on the ground, neither of the above protocols are necessary--simply douse visible flames before leaving.

Finally, in lightly-used wilderness areas, it is best to replace anything that was moved while preparing the fire site, and scatter anything that was gathered, so that it looks as natural as possible. Make absolutely certain that anything that was in or near the fire is fully cooled before following this protocol.

Colored fire

Colored fire is a common pyrotechnic effect used in stage productions, fireworks and by fire performers the world over. Generally, the color of a flame may be red, orange, yellow, or white, and is dominated by blackbody radiation from soot and steam. When additional chemicals are added to the fuel burning, their atomic emission spectra can affect the frequencies of visible light radiation emitted - in other words, the flame will appear a different colour dependent upon the chemical additives.

Pyrotechnicians will generally use metal salts to color their flames. Specific combinations of fuels and co-solvents are required in order to dissolve the necessary chemicals. Color enhancers are frequently added too, the most common of which is polyvinyl chloride.

Flame Colorants

Color Chemical

Carmine (Dark Red) - Lithium chloride
Red - Strontium chloride
Orange - Calcium chloride (a bleaching powder)
Yellow - Sodium chloride (table salt) or Sodium carbonate
Yellowish - Green Borax (Sodium Borate)
Green - Copper sulfate
Blue - Copper chloride
Violet - 3 parts Potassium sulfate, 1 part Potassium nitrate (saltpeter)
Purple - Potassium chloride
White - Magnesium sulfate (Epsom salts)

Campfire Colorants

Flame colorants are becoming popular while camping. Scouts and other outdoor enthusiasts have placed sections of copper pipe with holes drilled throughout and stuffed with garden hose onto campfires to create a variety of flame colors. An easier and more accepted method of coloring campfires has been fueled by commercial products. These packages of flame colorants are tossed onto a campfire or into a fireplace to produce effects.

The world’s biggest hole.

2007-11-04T06:18:00.000-05:00

The world’s biggest hole is located in Russia.

The gaint hole is actually a diamond mine in Eastern Siberia near the town Mirna. It is 525 meters deep and 1.25 km in the diameter.

This gaint machine appears just a small point in the next image…

The suction above the hole resulted in several helicopter crashes, so all flight above the hole is prohibited now.

A view from a satellite…

2007-10-13T15:37:00.000-04:00

Waterfalls in Kerala

Waterfalls in Ernakulam :

Mulamkuzhi :
This is a tiny village nearly 15kms from Malayattur. The crystal clear medicated water of the River Mulamkuzhi and the waterfalls of Venanbravady near Malayattur is an enchanting sight. There is also a confluence of the rivers Periyar and Perumthode.

Waterfalls in Idukki :

Attukal :
This place is located between Munnar and Pallivasal, and a beautiful sight of waterfalls and rolling hills can be seen here. Attukal is also ideal for long treks.

Cheeyappara :
The Cheeyappara and Valara waterfalls are located between Narimangalam and Adimali on the kochi-Madurai highway. The Cheeyapara waterfalls cascade down in seven steps. It is a real feast for the eyes.

Nyayamkad :
Nyayamkad 10 Kms from Munnar, located between Munnar and Rajamala Nyamkad is a land of breathtaking waterfalls. The Waters cascade down a hill from a height of about 1600 meters, the enchanting surrounding make an excellent picnic spot and trekking point.

Power House Waterfall :
Power House Waterfall 18 Km from Munnar, this waterfall is on the way to Thekkady from Munnar, which cascades down to step rock 2000m above sea level. The spot is enriched which the scenic western mountain range and is an ideal place for a break on the way to the Periyar Wildlife sanctuary.

Thommankuthu :
Thommankuthu 28 km from Thodupuzha is Thommankutthu, which is famous for its numerous waterfalls. This place is ideal for natural lovers as the seven-step waterfall here is a much loved picnic spot. At each step, there is a cascade and a pool beneath to enjoy the panoramic beauty; the best way is to undertake a trek that takes one to the top of the mountain, a 12 km. climb..

Waterfalls in Kozhikode (Calicut) :

Thusharagiri :
Thusharagiri Lying 50kms east of Kozhikode, Thusharagiri is a little tribal tourist spot in Kerala. Tow streams originating from the Western Ghats meet here to form the River Challipuzha. The river diverges into three waterfalls, creating a snowy spray, which gives the name 'Thusharagiri' which means 'snowy peak'. A 5km trek upstream will take one to the stream's origin. Of the three waterfalls, the highest is the Thenpara that drops 75 metres below..

Waterfalls in Kottayam :

Kesari Waterfalls :
The Kesari waterfalls, also known as Valanjamkanam falls, lies between Kuttikanam and Murinjapuzha on the Kottayam-Kumaly route. Valanjamkanam is a 3 hr. journey from Kottayam by any bus to Kumaly; trek to Kuttikanan offers additional adventurous spirit and closeness to nature.

Maramala Waterfall :
This lies a few kms away from Eerattupetta. It is exactly 7 kms from Teekoy rubber estate. From here a private vehicle can take you further 2 kms after which the road is not motor able. To reach the falls one has to trek through the estate over the rocky path. The waterfall is about 60 metres in height, falling into a 12-meter deep pool and joins the River Teekoy way down..

Waterfalls in Palakkad (Palghat) :

Dhoni :
A Dhoni waterfall is a 3 hours trek from the base of the Dhoni Hills. A thick reserve forest surrounds it. Dhoni is about 15 kms from Palakkad.

Meenvallam :
A Meenvallam waterfall is around 8kms from Thuppanad junction on the Palakkad- Manarkkad route. It is a combination of enchanting beauty and scenic splendor. The water falls from nearly 20 to 25 feet and the depth is around 15-20 feet. There are 10 steps of waterfalls of which eight are located in the upper hills inside the dense forest. They are inaccessible, only the remaining two steps are accessible. One has to hire a jeep from Koomankund junction and then trek a distance of 1.5 km by crossing the river Thuppanad.

Waterfalls in Pathanamthitta :

Perumthenaruvi :
Perumthenaruvi is a famous waterfall on the banks of the River Pamba. Here, the water flows down a rocky bed into a ravine 60 to 100 feet deep. The place is a favourite picnic spot for both domestic and foreign tourists.

Waterfalls in Quilon (Kollam) :

Palaruvi Waterfalls :
This waterfall falls in the border of Kerala and Tamilnadu. Its access is 35 kilometers east of Punalur on the Quilon - Shenkottah road. It is near Ariankavu mountain pass. 5 kilometers away is the spectacular Palaruvi waterfall at an attitude of 300 ft. with smaller cascades nearby. There you can see ruins of ancient temples. The water is said to be medicated as it flows down from the forest and is said to be a preventive for many diseases.

Waterfalls in Trichur (Thrissur) :

Athirapally and Vazhachal Waterfalls :
East of Chalakudy, near the entrance of the Sholayar forest ranges are the beautiful waterfalls of Athirapally and Vazhachal, 5 kms apart.

Waterfalls in Trivandrum :

Aruvi Waterfalls :
Aruvi Waterfalls 60 kms from Thiruvananthapuram and 7 kms from Bonecaud estate are the beautiful Aruvi Waterfalls in the Peppara forest range. This 4 feet cascade is one of the most verdant and untouched spots in Kerala. Road accessibility is only up to Bonecaud, there on; the Kanni tribesmen accompany trekkers along the mountain path. Prior permission from the forest department is required before approaching the area.

Kombaikani and Meenmutti Waterfalls :
These are two magnificent waterfalls on the upper reaches of the Neyyar Reservoir. A trek of 2 kms through dense forests, would take one to Meenmutti waterfalls and a further 2 kms, to the Kombaikani waterfalls. The waterfalls and forecasts around them are worth experiencing.

Waterfalls in Wayanad :

Chethalayam Waterfalls :
Chethalayam Waterfalls is located 12kms from Sultan Bathery. One has to trek around 4kms from Chethalayam for having a glimpse of this lovely waterfall.

Kanthanpara Waterfalls :
This waterfall is about 30 m in height and gives a panoramic view. It is located 12 kms southeast of Kalpetta .

Meenmutty Waterfalls :
Meenmutty Waterfalls has a cascading waterfall in three tiers, from a height of 500 metres. It is located 12kms east of Meppadi.

Sentinal Rock Water Fall :
Sentinal Rock Water Fall is 22kms at Soochipara near Meppadi, south of Kalpetta. A three step water fall of more than 200m in height with a fantastic scenery provides for white water rafting, swimming, bathing, etc., The tree top huts at Soochipara will give unique view of the valleys of Western Ghats. It is also an ideal place for rock climbing.

Soochipara Waterfalls :
Soochipara Waterfalls is located 22 kms from Hotel Green Gates. One can reach the waterfalls only after a 2-km walk into the dense equatorial forest of Wayanad.

2007-09-27T13:09:00.000-04:00

BUBBLE CITY

My concept design "Bubble City" was ranked top 5 in“X2010 Creative Camp”, a project of “Guangzhou Design Week 2006”.

The cement forest, the hot island effect, the existing space are deficient, the above are a series of pictures which the modern urban development grows, according to the human society at present development speed, 2010 city space will be able to have more automobiles to go through, more population gathering, as well as more green places reducing, this meant, our survival environment will receive the serious challenge.

How to alleviate the serious city ecology problem, how to develop new spaces for humanity's development, is the core matter my design might discuss and expect the solution. "Bubble City ", is my design idea which was proposed to solve the above questions.

“Bubble City” concept bases on the solar energy technology and the hot-air balloon principle which existed, as well as the still at experimental stage “hiding” science and technology(present US Pennsylvania university's electron and systems engineering professor is studying on it). The material of bubble surface can absorb solar energy, and then the energy will be stored in the battery which lies in the bubble base. The battery is the power supply for the bubble air conditioner, The air conditioner controls the spatial fluctuation through the adjustment of the bubble air temperature. The bubble surface contains the "hiding" material, which can cause the sunlight to any direction refraction(according to English America scientist's theory), thus the bubble would not throw down the shadow to the ground, and people standing on the ground can look at the sky without any covering, just like putting on Harry Porter's hiding cape. According to these three big technologies, expected in 2010, we has been able to realize the space floating, then the human society will have true "the hanging garden", and "the bubble club", "the bubble lift", "the bubble studio" as well as "the sun-dried bubble" and so on a series of bubble spaces.

The "Bubble City " is constituted of three major parts, namely ecology balancer, spatial coupling, spatial development. Ecology balancer includes "the bubble park", "the bubble club", "the bubble greenhouse" and so on the bubble spaces which have massive green plants in them. These Green plants absorb in air carbon dioxide through the special micro pore of the bubble surface, subsequently release the massive fresh oxygen for the city, alleviate the city's air pollution as well as the hot island effect, and then adjust the urban climate. At the same time, "the bubble greenhouse" vegetables also can increase the agricultural production supply of the city. "The bubble park" and "the bubble club" will be great leisure place for the metropolitans.

The spatial coupling mainly refers to "the bubble lift", which has small volume, so it moves nimbly. It can load people to go to different bubble spaces.

The spatial development includes “the Bubble Studio” as well as “the Sun-dried Bubble” and so on a series of bubble spaces, they can alleviate the land space deficiency problem, and provide a broader domain for the city development. "The sun-dried bubble" is not floating in the air, they park in the building crown, on the one hand it's convenient for the building inhabitant to dry their clothes together, avoids scattered sun-dried to destroy the city appearance; On the other hand, the bubble surface material is waterproof, so just no need to worry about the rain; At the same time, the bubble has 4 small spheroids in the base, they can store up the rain water and the clothing drops. Using this stored water to water the plants and sweep the floor, that will be a good way to save water effectively.

In 2010 ,we will live in a brand-new world which gathers the high tech content,all nowadays looked like Arabian Nights, might be able to realize. Let this conception "the Bubble City ", become the hope that we stand in today and forecast the future.

Bubble City: Amazing new Dubai project launched

Following the creation of some of the world's most remarkable landmarks, Dubai is all set for yet another path breaking project. This time not on earth or on water but in the skies. The Bubble City will be a suspended architectural marvel, stationed 200 metres above the ground, powered by two mammoth helium balloons and an anti-gravity reaction motor. Designed to look like an air bubble, the Bubble City will be a transparent enclosure made of reinforced glass and specialised fibre. The concept will house restaurants, theme parks and museums along with a few exclusive conference venues. Randomly placed hydraulic oxygen vents will make atmospheric oxygen available for use inside, through pressure balancing that doesn't jeopardise the existence of the bubble.

Another ground breaking feature of the city is that the entire city will be powered by solar energy. Heavy duty solar cells for this purpose are already in the process of development. The Bubble City is deemed to be one of its kind; a new chapter in modern architecture and town planning. The estimated cost for this mammoth venture is US$ 30 billion. The Bubble City is the costliest proposition till date. A panel of award winning international architects and structural engineers has prepared the blue print for this amazing new city.

WINE TOURISM

2007-09-06T03:26:00.000-04:00

Wine tourism refers to tourism whose purpose is or includes the tasting, consumption, or purchase of wine, often at or near the source. Wine tourism can consist of visits to wineries, vineyards, and restaurants known to offer unique vintages, as well as organized wine tours, wine festivals, or other special events.

Many wine regions around the world have found it financially beneficial to promote such tourism; accordingly, growers associations and others in the hospitality industry in wine regions have spent significant amounts of money over the years to promote such tourism. This is true not only to "Old World" producers (such as France or Italy), but also for the so-called "New World wine" regions (such as Australia, Argentina, or Chile), where wine-tourism plays an important role in advertising their products. In Argentina, for example, the Mendoza Province is slowly becoming one of the top tourist destinations in the country as Argentine wine strides to gain international recognition.

The National Wine Centre of Australia is a tourism venue that showcases the entire Australian wine industry. It is an education hub for tourists, the general public and full time students. The National Wine Centre is a teaching centre for wine-related academic programs of The University of Adelaide, Australia. The University of Adelaide, "the wine university", is one of the top two educators in the world for wine studies along with the University of California - Davis.

Flinders University in Australia offers a degree program in food and wine tourism.

Wine Tourism Overview

One of the world’s fastest growing industries is “Wine Tourism”. What is it? How can we best benefit from it?

Firstly, let’s keep it simple. If tourism” is simply the provision of goods and services that attract tourists, then “wine tourism” is the same but has the added influence of wine. Wine tourism is not only associated with cellar door wineries, rather all business that are involved in the wine, tourism and associated industries with the wine region. This includes accommodation houses, tour operators, gift shops, national parks etc.

If the desired outcome of “wine tourism” is attracting more tourists then the real secret to success is having a clear understanding of the needs of your potential customers. Once this is clear you can focus on attracting tourists to our wine regions, improve business and target specific customers to your region.

Queensland has the advantage of already having an established tourism industry. Many wineries don’t appreciate how involved they are in the tourism industry. An area that most regions have identified as important to meeting customer expectations is the need to integrate wine with quality food. There is no question that food plays an important part in adding to a region’s ambience and unique character.

To obtain long-term success, each region needs to focus on really defining their point of differences, rather than trying to out perform another region. Identifying and consistently delivering a unique wine experience is what each region must strive to achieve. This fits well into both Tourism Queensland’s and the Department of State Development strategy to promote regional tourism. Global trends indicate that tourism is one of the most dynamic growth sectors and the demand for a quality experience is rising rapidly.

Irrespective of the way tourism is formally defined, it is first and foremost a ‘people industry’ involving the development and supply of a range of facilities, services and experiences to meet the needs, aspirations and expectations of visitors. Tourism is complex and diverse, involving many different forms of commerce. Most tourism businesses are part of the much larger services industry. At the local and regional level, the industry comprises tourism operators, businesses not directly involved in tourism, local and regional tourism organisations, community groups, residents and local government. By working together destinations have the capacity to attract visitors, satisfy their leisure needs and expectations, and generate economic and other benefits for the whole community.

Competition is fierce, especially from overseas destinations, for domestic and international travellers. Throughout Australia, many innovative products and experiences are being aggressively and professionally promoted offering tourists an ever-increasing range of options. In the highly competitive industry of today there is no room for a poorly planned or half-hearted approach. Planning is essential for any community or region to develop a sustainable tourism industry and gain maximum return on assets and investment. The first step is the development of a comprehensive regional tourism development plan. It should take into account the product, resources and potential markets, as well as the needs and aspirations of stakeholders including local communities. The plan establishes a vision and strategy for long-term, sustainable tourism growth.

FAIRS AND FESTIVALS IN INDIA

2007-08-05T04:20:00.000-04:00

JANUARY _FEBRUARY

Dover Lane Music Conference, Kolkata

Held at the end of January, the Dover Lane Music Conference is one of the biggest Indian classical music events in the country. First held in the 1960s, the event began as just a small gathering of musicians and music lovers and has grown to become a huge festival that now attracts performers and audiences from all over India. A great event, one of the conference’s goals is to introduce younger audiences to the art of Indian classical music

Teesta Tea festivals,Darjeeling

Teesta Tea Tourism FestivalThe third Teesta Tea Tourism Festival got off to a colourful start with a display of Sikkim’s ethnic cultural tradition and vibrant tableaux on adventure sports. The programme showcasing the eastern Himalayan region as a ‘composite tourist destination’ began with showering of petals from a chopper. "This is a healthy sign for promotion of tourism in this part of India. After all Kanchenjungha, river Teesta and tea are common symbols of our region. Instead of wasting our limited resources in competing with each other we should work together. This is a global trend," Sikkim’s Tourism Minister K. T. Gyaltsen said while inaugurating the festival. He, however, lamented that the ‘sudden’ and ‘abrupt’ closure of the Bagdogra airport linking Sikkim and North Bengal with the rest of the country since December 16 last, has been a disappointment for them. "This has caused immense difficulties to the intending air passengers. A number of local hotels and tour operators lost business because of cancellation of flights to Bagdogra," Mr. Gyaltsen said. Terming it as a ‘red letter day’, West Bengal principal Secretary of Tourism Pranab Ray said efforts were on to include Bhutan and Arunachal Pradesh into the festival from next year. The three-week-long festival is being organised by the Governments of West Bengal, Sikkim and Darjeeling Gorka Hill Council with active participation of tour operators, hoteliers and taxi drivers’ associations in the region. The festival, to continue in different phases in the Dooars region and Darjeeling hills of West Bengal, will have water sports, food carnival, toy train ride, nature walk, film fests, visit to snctuaries as main draws.

Thaipoosam

A festival occurring in Thai (January-February), on the day of the star Poosam either on Pournami or around that time. One legend says that on a Thursday in Thai that also happened to be the day of Poosam star and pournami, Shiva and Parvati engaged in an ecstatic cosmic dance, as Brahma, Vishnu, Indra and the Devas watched. This indicates that this is a day ideal for worship of Shiva. According to another legend, as Shiva was imparting a mantra to Parvati, Subrahmanya eavesdropped on them. For that error, Parvati laid a curse on him, in line with the rule that even a son, if erring, must be punished. To be redeemed from her curse, Subrahmanya offered hard penance at Thirupparankunram. Pleased with his penance, Shiva and Parvati manifested before him and lifted the curse. The day on which Parvati’s curse on Subrahmanya was lifted was a Thai Poosam. It is thus a special day for worship of Lord Subrahmanya, taking kavadis loaded with milk pots for offering to him for eradication of ills afflicting us. Yet another legend has it that Kaveri, grieving that she had not secured the eminence acquired by Ganga through her position atop Shiva’s locks and also on Vishnu’s feet called Nupuram, sat under a peepul tree on the banks of Sara Pushkarini and offered penance to Narayana. Pleased by her penance, Narayana appeared as a baby in her lap. That day when he manifested thus was, again, a Thai Poosam. And a particularly important day for worship of Lord Vishnu after a bath in Kaveri. To this day, in several temples in South India, the utsava idol is decked out and taken to the banks of the Kaveri for special worship there.

Mamallapuram dance Festivals,Tamil Nadu

Once the ancient port of the Pallavas, Mamallapuram plays host to a vibrant festival of Dance. Exponents of Bharat Natyam, Kuchipudi, Kathak and Kathakali performed against the magnificent backdrop of the Pallava Rock Sculpture.Mamallapuram Dance Festival is organized during the months of January and February in the city of Mahabalipuram in Tamil Nadu.

This event witnesses performances on the Indian classical dances such as the Bharat Natyam, Kuchipudi, Kathak, Mohiniattam, Odissi and Kathakali.The prominent people from their respected fields gather for this cultural event that is also promoted by the Tamil Nadu Tourism Department as one of the major cultural attraction to these parts of India.This four week Mamallapuram Dance Festival is held at the venue of Arjuna's penance, a bass-relief sculpted on the face of two enormous adjacent rocks, in Mamallapuram. The magnificent backdrop that is provided by the Pallava Rock Sculptures provide an aesthetic touch to this cultural dance festival.The open-air stage and the dancers from far and wide come to watch the best folk dancers in India perform in front of them under the open skies in an open-air theatre style ambience. This open-air stage was created about thirteen centuries ago, the incredible monolithic rock sculptures of the Pallavas, next to the sea in this ancient city of Mamallapuram.

Makar Sankranti

Makar means Capricorn and Sankranti is transition. There is a sankranti every month when the sun passes from one sign of the zodiac to the next. There are twelve signs of the zodiac, and thus there are twelve sankranti's as well. Each of these sankranti's has its own relative importance but two of these are more important - the Mesh(Aries) Sankranti and the most important, the Makar(Capricorn) Sankranti. Transition of the Sun from Sagittarius to Capricorn, during the winter solstice in the northern hemisphere is known as Makar Sankranti. From this day begins the six-month long Uttarayana, considered very auspicious for attaining higher worlds hereafter.

Traditionally, this period is considered an auspicious time and the veteran Bhishma of Mahabharata chose to die during this period. Bhishma fell to the arrows of Arjuna. With his boon to choose the time of his death, he waited on a bed of arrows to depart from this world only during this period. It is believed that those who die in this period have no rebirth.

Legends behind Makar Sakranti

The Puranas say that on this day Sun visits the house of his son Shani, who is the swami of Makar Rashi. These father & son do not ordinarily get along nicely, but inspite of any difference between each other Lord Sun makes it a point to meet each other on this day. From Uttarayana starts the ‘day’ of Devatas, while dakshinayana is said to be the ‘night’ of devatas, so most of the auspicious things are done during this time. It was on this day when Lord Vishnu ended the ever increasing terrorism of the Asuras by finishing them off and burying their heads under the Mandar Parvat. The great savior of his ancestors, Maharaj Bhagirath, did great Tapasya to bring Gangaji River down on the earth for the redemption of 60,000 sons of Maharaj Sagar, who were burnt to ashes at the Kapil Muni Ashram, near the present day Ganga Sagar. It was on this day that Bhagirath finally did tarpan with the Ganges water for his unfortunate ancestors and thereby liberated them from the curse.

Celebrations throughout India

Makar Sankranti is celebrated throughout India as a harvest festival. It is a way of giving thanks to the elements of nature that help man. This is the period when the winter recedes, paving the way for the summer. It is the time the farmers bring home their harvest. In the coast al regions, it is a harvest festival dedicated to Indra. In North India, a ritual bath in the river is important on this day. Khichiri is eaten and given away as charity, and People also distribute rice and lentils to the poor and needy. In Maharashtra, a special dish called tilgul, or laddoos made of jaggery and Sesame seed, the chief crop of the season, is popular.In Gujrat it is celebrated as the Kite flying day.Call it Lohri, Pongal or Sankranti, the festival conveys the same message -- the bond of brotherhood and the spirit of oneness should prevail despite all odds.

Pongal

Pongal - The four day harvest festival of Tamil NaduPongal is the first festival beginning off each new year in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu. As the dates for this festival are calculated by the solar calander (ie. Western), the dates of January 13-16 never change. Each day of this festival has a special significance, however, it is celebrated more grandly in the villages, while the city folk mainly celebrate on the second day only.

The first day of the festival is called Bhogi. On Bhogi all people clean out their homes from top to bottom, and collect all unwanted goods. In the evening, people will light bonfires and burn what can be burnt. In the village where I celebrated Pongal, the people lived in mud huts with thatched roves. The porches of these homes was fully covered by the thatch material, but somewhat elevated from the ground. This part of the home was taken apart and reconstructed on this day along with the front section of the walkway in front of their home (pictured to the left). Both the porch and ground in front of their home was solid mud which had dried. So, to undo this, they put in water to soften it, and dug it out and rebuilt it. After rebuilding it, they took cow dung and added water to make a paste and spread this mixture evenly over the new fixtures to coat and sanitize them. This mixture was also spread on the floor of the hut, on which we slept at night. As they don't have beds, we slept on the floor of the mud hut with a mat between our bodies and the floor. Although, the mixture had been spread on the floor, it did not at all smell fowl in any way. In addition, the family I stayed with installed a new ceiling fan for Pongal.

The second day of the festival, Surya Pongal, is the day on which the celebrations actually begins, is the first day of the Tamil month Thai. On this day, Surya, the sun God is worshipped and women will wake early on this day to create elaborate kolum on the grounds in front of their doorway or home. Kolums are created with colored rice flour placed on the ground carefully by using one's hand. The picture shown to the right shows the beginnings of this. The women in the picture took several hours to finish that kolum. All people will wear their new dresses and use the new utensils or household items which replace the ones discarded the previous day. On this day the new rice is collected and cooked in pots until they over flow. It is this overflowing which means Pongal. This overflowing of rice is a joyous occasion, and the children and adults as well will shout out 'Pongal-o Pongal!' Children will dance and make music to the tune of these words. As far as I know, the words have no real meaning but an expression of happiness that the new harvest is here and we should enjoy it! The rice is cooked and prepared as a dish called Pongal, which is rice with dhal and sugar. This Pongal variety is called venpongal, ven meaning white. Another variety is also prepared with dhal and jaggery (sweet), called chakra1pongal, chakrai meaning sweet. To accompany the venpongal, people eat brinjal (eggplant) sambar (stew), vadai, idli, and spicy accompaniments. This is one of my favorite meals!!

The third day is called Maatu Pongal, maatu meaning cattle. This day is devoted to paying homage to cattle. Cows and Bulls are decorated with paint and bells and people pray to them. In fact, in my Pongal experience, the cattle were decorated with bells on their neck, and kum kum placed on their head, and we (My friend, her family and I.) paid respect to them by bending down, like praying in temple, and touching their feet and foreheads, followed by an aarthi (showing fire to the object of praise) and offering the cattle prasadam (food offering, in this case, pongal).. In some villages in south India, there are bull fights of varying types. These are not so common as they once were, I understand.The fourth day is termed as Kaanum Pongal. On this day, people travel to see other family members. As in the family I stayed, we traveled to another village to meet her family there. On this day, the younger members of the family pay homage to the elders, and the elders thank them by giving token money (like Rs. 10 or US 25cents). Another thing many do is leave food out on banana leaves for birds to take. I don't remember having done this, but I do know many South Indian people will take the first bit of rice cooked in any given day and set it outside for the crows to take, so this is not necessarily a habit only for Pongal. Some also go to temple, as shown in the photo. The photo is taken from the top of the staircase we climbed to get in the temple.

SARKKARAI PONGAL
Ingredients :

2 litres milk
10 almonds
1 1/2 cups newly harvested rice
1/4 cup moong dal
15 cashewnuts
1 1/2 cup jaggery grated
30 kishmis
1/4 level teaspoon nutrieg powder
1/4 teaspoon saffron crushed
1 teaspoon cardamom powder
2 tablespoons ghee.

Method:

Chop almonds and cashewnuts.
Clean kishmis
Pour milk in the earthen pot called `Pongapani' and place it on fire.
When the milk starts boiling add rice and dal, after washing.
As soon as the rice and dal are cooked to softness, add jaggery and ghee.
Let cook on medium fire for some time and then put in almond and cashewnut bits, saffron nutrieg and cardamom powders.
Lastly put in the kishmis.
Bring to one or two good boils.
This SARKKARAI PONGAL is cooked in the Sun in courtyard and served directly from the pot.

Bihu

Bihu is the National Festival of Assam, one of the most beautiful states of India, known for its tea gardens, lush green forests and the mighty Brahmaputra river. The origin of the word ‘Bihu" is said to be from the Sanskrit word ‘Vishu’.

The Assamese celebrate three types of Bihu in a year - Rongaali Bihu or ‘Bohaag Bihu’, Kati Bihu or Kongaali Bihu and the last but not the least Magh Bihu or Bhogaali Bihu’. The Bihus mark three distinct phases of the farming calendar for the native crop of Assam i.e. paddy. Bohaag Bihu marks the advent of the seeding time, the Kati Bihu marks the completion of sowing of paddy and transplantation of the saplings (‘Kothia’) and finally Magh Bihu marks the culmination of the harvesting period.

‘Rongaali Bihu’, the most important Bihu of all the three, is celebrated in the month of Bohaag (middle of April), the first month of the Assamese calendar and thus marks the advent of the Assamese New Year. This Bihu is also known as Rongaali ( ‘Rong’ denoting joy in Assamese) Bihu due to the merriment that predominates the celebrations. This festival also coincides with the advent of the spring season in the state. Bihu Dance and Bihu Songs are the main features of this Bihu. Bohaag Bihu is celebrated over a period of several days. The first day of the Bihu is known as ‘Goru Bihu’ on which day the cows and bulls are given a ritual bath with ‘halodhi’, ‘maah’ with the accompanying song "Lao Kha, Bengena Kha, Bochore Bochore Badhi Ja".

The next day is the main Bihu Day on which people greet each other and pay their respect to the elders in the family by presenting with a new ‘Gamosa’ ( a traditional Assamese hand-woven cotton towel with red designs with a white background). Gamosa forms an integral part of the Bohaag Bihu celebrations as the male danseuse wears them on the head as well as on the body. The tradition of presenting a Gamosa is also practised while welcoming any guest during anytime of the year.

Another item which forms an integral part of the Bihu celebrations and is also symbolic of Assamese Culture is the Japi – a traditional Bamboo hat with colorful designs. A more simple bamboo Japi is normally worn by the farmer while cultivating in the field protecting oneself from the sun and rain.

The folk songs associated with Bohaag Bihu are known as ‘Bihu Geet’; Bihu Geet is symbolic of communication of love and romance among the village youth and the village belles. The dances are accompanied by traditional Assamese instruments like the Dhol (the Drum), Pepa, Gagana, Toka etc..

Traditionally Bihu has been celebrated with Bihu dance and Bihu Geets in the village fields and courtyards, with groups of youths going from house to house, singing Bihu songs which is known as Husori. The same practice slowly got transformed to holding community functions mainly in towns and cities where cultural functions are held; such functions are based on Bihu dance and Bihu geets which depict mainly Bihu dances and songs.

The end of the Bohaag Bihu is marked by the celebration of Bohagi Bidaai, i.e. farewell to Bohaag.

Kati Bihu is the most quiet Bihu of the three without any funfare unlike the other two. Held in the beginning of the Kati (7th month of the Assamese calendar) (middle of October), the Bihu marks silent prayer in the form of lighting of earthen lamps in the paddy fields and also near Tulasi tree for the success of the crop.

Bhogaali Bihu is celebrated in January, immediately after the traditional paddy cultivation is harvested. An overnight community function is held in temporary thatched houses (made with thatch and dry plantation leaves/ trunk) known as Bhela Ghar or Meji Ghar) specially erected for the purpose mainly in the barren paddy fields from where the crop has already been harvested. A Community feast is one of the main features of this Bihu which is held near the Bhela Ghar. People spent the night of the community feast in the Bhela Ghar and early in the morning the same is lit with fire, culminating the function. A variety of traditional Assamese sweets and cakes like the Laru, Pitha etc. are prepared on the occasion in every home. The next day is spent by visiting relatives and friends to convey and exchange the Bihu greetings; the guests, neighbours and relatives are treated with the snacks prepared for the occasion.
One important aspect of the Bihu festival is that the entire Assamese Community irrespective caste, creed and religious followings celebrate it.

Republic day

26th January 1950 is one of the most important days in Indian history as it was on this day the constitution of India came into force and India became a truly sovereign state. In this day India became a totally republican unit. The country finally realized the dream of Mahatma Gandhi and the numerous freedom fighters who, fought for and sacrificed their lives for the Independence of their country. So, the 26th of January was decreed a national holiday and has been recognized and celebrated as the Republic Day of India, ever since.

Today, the Republic Day is celebrated with much enthusiasm all over the country and especially in the capital, New Delhi where the celebrations start with the Presidential to the nation. The beginning of the occasion is always a solemn reminder of the sacrifice of the martyrs who died for the country in the freedom movement and the succeeding wars for the defense of sovereignty of their country. Then, the President comes forward to award the medals of bravery to the people from the armed forces for their exceptional courage in the field and also the civilians, who have distinguished themselves by their different acts of valour in different situations.

To mark the importance of this occasion, every year a grand parade is held in the capital, from the Rajghat, along the Vijaypath. The different regiments of the army, the Navy and the Air force march past in all their finery and official decorations even the horses of the cavalry are attractively caparisoned to suit the occasion. The crème of N.C.C cadets, selected from all over the country consider it an honour to participate in this event, as do the school children from various schools in the capital. They spend many days preparing for the event and no expense is spared to see that every detail is taken care of, from their practice for the drills, the essential props and their uniforms.

The parade is followed by a pageant of spectacular displays from the different states of the country. These moving exhibits depict scenes of activities of people in those states and the music and songs of that particular state accompany each display. Each display brings out the diversity and richness of the culture of India and the whole show lends a festive air to the occasion. The parade and the ensuing pageantry is telecast by the National Television and is watched by millions of viewers in every corner of the country.

The patriotic fervor of the people on this day brings the whole country together even in her essential diversity. Every part of the country is represented in occasion, which makes the Republic Day the most popular of all the national holidays of India.

Vasant Panchami

Vasant Panchami is a Hindu festival celebrating Saraswati, the goddess of knowledge, music, and art. It is celebrated every year on the fifth day of the Indian month Magh (January-February), the first day of spring. During this festival children are taught their first words; brahmins are fed; ancestor worship (Pitri-Tarpan) is performed; the god of love, Kamadeva, is worshipped; and most educational institutions organise special prayer for Saraswati. The color yellow also plays an important role in this festival, in that people usually wear yellow garments, Saraswati is worshipped dressed in yellow, and yellow sweetmeats are consumed within the families

The Floating Folk Festival

The Floating Folk Festival was founded in 1997 by Richmond musicians that perform on in Central Virginia. In 2002, we became part of Rockitz and now work with jam bands, blues, metal, punk and many other types of music, in addition to the regular acoustic singer-songwriters. The name refers to the revolving roster of performers that "float" from venue to venue such as The Watermelon Festival, The Diamond, The Irish Festival, Easter Parade, Earth Day and many others. Rockitz was a popular rock club started in Richmond in 1984 and key people from that venture manage the current operation.

The primary goal is live performances, compilation CD releases, archiving and documenting concerts and encouraging networking among artists. Over 100 concerts have been videotaped, included sessions at the State Theatre, Landmark Theatre, The Prism Coffeehouse and many others. Two issues of Rockitz magazine were printed in 2005.

Since the first show at the now-defunct Main Street Grill in the summer of 1997, there have been over 800 shows featuring more than 300 different acts, representing folk, bluegrass, country and acoustic rock, for the most part. Highlights include members of the Holy Modal Rounders playing a set at Floating Folk Show at the Border Cafe, Floating Folk Band opening for the Pure Prairie League, New Potato Caboose, and others, and the amazing Steve Earle attending one of our shows at the Main Street Grill. The organization was featured on the cover of the "Weekender" section of the Richmond Times Dispatch in 1998.

The first CD was released in the summer of 1998 on Planetary Records and features Steve Fisher, Eileen Edmonds, Burnt Taters, Gerry Laverty, Larry Cody, Barnabus Jones, Brooke Saunders, Stephen Christoff, Harry Gore & The Measles, Claire Clifford Coppin, Texas Ed, Jackie Burton & Cahoots, Pam McCarthy, and William Perritt & Soy Hero.The second CD contained many of the above artists, plus Van Driver, Matthew Costello, Regan, Kate Lawton, and various others. A third CD was released in fall 2002 featuring many of the original musicians, this time adding Julie Goldman, Kristin, and Heather.

The Floating Folk Festival is a true musical co-op: the participants share in the performing, technical, and organizational duties, and all funds are devoted to the CDs, and other purposes. If you are having an event or party, the Floating Folk Festival/Rockitz is available in many formats. We can provide solo artists or full bands playing original music, in addition to fun covers from the Beatles and Chuck Berry.

Nagaur Fair

Also called as the Cattle Fair, is the 2nd largest animal fair of India. Thousands of animals are gathered at the cattle fair for trading. Traders come to buy and sell cows, bullocks (Nagauri breed is renowned), oxen and camels.

Activities

Various games are organized during this four day festival. Tug-of-war, camel races, cock fights etc. provide entertainment to the tourists and visitors. As the sun goes down, a joyous atmosphere is created by the folk music and dance, whose voices echo far and wide across the tranquil desert sand.

History

It was bestowed upon Balban as his jagir in 1242. Sher Shah captured Nagaur in 1542 A.D. Nagaur was a sarkar of Ajmer subah during Sur empire and later in Mughal empire. Emperor Akbar built the mosque here, and there is a shrine of the disciple of Mu'inuddin Chishti of Ajmer.Badal Mahal, Sheesh Mahal & Hadi Rani Mahal are worth seeing. All three have exquisite 18th century frescos on the ceilings. There is also fascinating medieval air cooling system and an ornate old hammam, or bath.

Camel Festival

The Camel Festival is an event organized in Bikaner by the Department of Tourism, Art and Culture, Government of Rajasthan, every year in the month of January. Desert region's Folk dances and Music, add on to what is otherwise an exclusive camel affair. A festival when the ships of the desert are seen at their best. Camels fascinate tourists from all over the world with their movements, charm and grace. A spectacle of unusual camel performances: camel races, camel dances, and the bumpy, neck shaking camel rides.ActivitiesThe festival starts with the procession of beautifully decorated camels. The procession heads towards the open sand grounds. Here, the festivities begin in earnest. The Camel Pageant is held on the first day wherein the camel owners show off their Camels' decorations and jewellery. Camel dance performances are also held. A competition for best decorated camel, fur cutting design, camel milking and the best camel hair cut is organized The camels display amazing footwork, dancing gracefully to the slightest direction of their drivers. Colourful bridles, bejewelled necks, jingling anklets and long, lanky camel shadows on dusky sands, cast a magical spell.In this festival tea and sweets prepared by camel milk are made available to the visitors interested in enjoying them.On the second day, the fleetest camels of the region take part in the camel races. The competition is fierce as the best camels vie for the honors. Thousands of excited tourists and locals cheer the favorites. On both days, the evening ends with a rendezvous with the renowned folk artists of Rajasthan. The jubilant, skirt swirling dances, the awe inspiring fire dances and many other equally interesting performances entertain the visitors. The grand finale is a magnificent display of fireworks which illuminates the desert city of Bikaner. History Situated in the heart of the desert belt, Bikaner was always an inaccessible land. Before the advent of modern motor vehicles, the survival of the people of this region depended on the 'Ship of the desert' - the Camel. The camels of this region were famous for their endurance as well as their strength and beauty. In fact, the Bikaner army had an elite camel corps called the Ganga Risala which took active part in both the World Wars. The Ganga Risala was a Camel unit in the army even after the independence and it took part in Indo-Pak wars. Bikaner also boasts of the only Camel breeding center in India. Camel can still be seen pulling heavy loads on carts in this region. With such a long association with Camels, it is but natural that the Department of Tourism, Art and Culture chose to hold the Camel festival in Bikaner.

Gramam(Village Fair)

An entire Kerala village is recreated on the beach during this ten day long festival. The traditional nalukettu (the quadrangular upper class house with a central open courtyard) and its premises become the venue of the fair, where the culture, arts and crafts of Kerala come alive.
Festival highlights Arts and crafts fair, Kathakali, Thiruvathirakali, Mohiniattam, Oppana, Kalaripayattu, Sarpapattu, Theyyam, Kummattikali, Panchavadyam, Chakyarkoothu, Ottanthullal.

The Great Elephant

The Great Elephant March is a major tourist attraction that brings in visitors from all over. It is a four day program organized by the Department of tourism, Kerala.

Elephant pageantry, boat races and folk art performances are specially arranged in a four-day period for the tourists to have a glimpse of the Kerala culture.

On the fourth day, the Elephant pageantry is held at Trivandrum. Here tourists will have an occasion to witness Kerala's folk art forms and its ancient martial art display, Kalaripayattu. The grand finale is at Kovalam Beach. It concludes with the seaside barbecue.

FEBRUARY – MARCH

GOA CARNIVAL

Among the many and various colorful feasts and festivals that are celebrated in Goa, the Goa Carnaval is the most eagerly awaited event.The 'Carnaval’ is exclusive and unique to Goa, and was introduced by the Portuguese who ruled over Goa for over five hundred years.Although, the three-day festival is primarily celebrated by Christians, it has also absorbed Hindu tradition revelry, western dance forms, and turned into a pageantry of sorts. Though it started as a celebration enjoyed only by the local population, it has today crossed the state frontiers and attracts thousands of people from all over the country.The carnival is held in February for three days and nights, when the legendary king Momo takes over the state and the streets come alive with music and color. Then begins the weeklong event, which is a time of unbridled festivity and merry-making, which has been celebrated since the 18th Century. The carnival is meant to be a feasting-drinking-merrymaking orgy just before the austere 40 days of Lent. Huge parades are organized throughout the state with bands, dances and floats out all night on the streets, and grand balls held in the evenings. The crnival concludes with the famous red-and-black dance held by the Clube National in Panajim on the final day. The origins and nature of the carnival can be traced to the hedonistic feasts of ancient Rome and Greece. These carivals started in the Spanish and Portugese colonies, and gradually became known for their singing, dancing and drinking. The carnival is presided over by King Momo, who on the opening day orders his subjects to party. Hotel bookings must be done in advance for carnival as the festival attracts thousands of tourists.

The word Carnival (Carnaval in Portuguese) is derived from a Latin word meaning ‘to take away meat’ and is an expression of the 40-day period of fasting of Lent, during which abstinence from meat is a rule. The carnival is not celebrated anywhere else in India and was in decline even in Goa in the last few years of Portuguese rule. Its revival with the Liberation of Goa, and a boost to its tourism was therefore welcome. From being almost on the brink of decline, this three day festival of gay abandon and riotous revelry now attracts thousands of tourists to Goa from all over India every year!

ELEPHANTA FESTIVAL, ELEPHANTA ISLAND, MUMBAI

This festival is held across the Mumbai harbour, on the Elephanta Island, near the world-renowned Elephanta Caves (A World Heritage Site). This feast of music and dance, celebrated under the stars, transforms the entire island into a large auditorium.Elephanta, a small island 10kms away from the Mumbai harbour, is a favoured destination for culture lovers during the festival held in February. The Elephanta Island is known for its great cave shrine, excavated in the 6th century.

Elephanta caves, earlier known as Gharapuri, are the tranquil abode of Lord Shiva. This land was renamed, Elephanta by the Portuguese, after the majestic carved elephant on this island.The temple here has large pillars and nine marvelous sculptured panels, set on the wall, which are awe-inspiring. The sculptures display the changing moods of Lord Shiva, with the magical interplay of light and shade intensifying the overall effect.

The festival of Music and Dance is organised by the Maharashtra Tourism Development Corporation (MTDC). The main highlights of the festival are the illuminated Maheshmurti (Shiva-idol), in the main cave of the island. Folk dances by the local fisher folk, ethnic local food varieties add to the ambiance. Over the years, the festival has become a major tourist attraction for Mumbaites and for incoming domestic and foreign tourists.

Maha Shivaratri

Falls in February-March. And is regarded as the best Shiva vrata. A legend in Annamalai Puranam (that is cited also for Thirukkarthikai) says about this festival that, in an argument as to who of them was greater, Brahma and Vishnu decided that it would be the one who saw the crown or feet of Lord Shiva; that Vishnu then went to search for Shiva’s feet, and Brahma for Shiva’s crown; that Vishnu failed in his quest and admitted defeat, while Brahma claimed, falsely, to have seen Shiva’s crown and produced as evidence the cactus flower thazhampoo; and that, as a consequence, Shiva appeared in the form of a flame and laid down that there would be no temple worship for Brahma while in all places with a Shiva temple there would be one for Vishnu, too. Shiva thus manifested as a flame on krishna paksha chaturthi in Masi month. This is Shivaratri. The true import of this legend in Annamalai Puranam is to be found in the dvaita-advaita principles. Brahma is advaitam, involving what is called nirguna upasana, where there is no place for idol worship. Shaiva siddhanta and vaishnava siddhantha lay stress on saguna upasana and idol worship. It is hence that there are Shiva-Vishnu temples under the dvaita and visishtadvaita systems, while there is none for Brahma under advaita. This is how we need to interpret this legend and not that one deity is greater than another. Another ancient text says that Parvati once playfully covered Shiva’s eyes with her palms, causing the world to be plunged in darkness. In remorse over the woe caused to humanity by her action, Parvati offered worship to Shiva through that night. And she prayed that anyone doing Shiva puja during all four yamas of that night should be given every boon. Shiva acceded her request, naming the night Shivaratri. Shivaratri is of five kinds: nitya Shivaratri, paksha Shivaratri, masa Shivaratri, yoga Shivaratri, and Maha Shivaratri. Nitya Shivaratri is on chaturdasi, fourteenth day, after each amavasya (new moon) and pournami (full moon). There are 24 Nitya Shivaratri in a year. Paksha Shivaratri is Shiva worship for 13 days from the day after pournami in Thai. Masa Shivaratri is on krishna paksha chaturdasi each month. Yoga Shivaratri occurs each month on the Monday that is chaturdasi from sunrise to 10 in the morning or is an amavasya for twentyfour hours from sunrise. Maha Shivratri is at midnight on chaturdasi, fourteenth day, in krishna paksha in the month Masi. The auspicious time is between midnight and one in the morning when the Lord manifested before Parvati in the form of Shivalinga. According to agamas, the Shivaratri where the day is trayodasi and the night chaturdasi is the most exalted; it is of the middle kind if it is not even to a little extent trayodasi; and least exalted when the day is tinged with amavasya.

Surajkund Krafts Mela,OutsKirts of Delhi

THE FAIR

As spring glides in, full of warmth and vibrancy leaving the gray winter behind, Surajkund adorns itself with colorful traditional crafts of India. Craftsmen from all over the country assemble at Surajkund during the first fortnight of February to participate in the annual celebration known as the Surajkund Crafts Mela. This Mela (fair) is a meeting ground for talented artists, painters, weavers, sculptors and craftsmen form all over India who exhibit their creations for the arts and crafts lovers who come from the world over to admire and acquire these creations.

Surajkund (literally, 'Lake of the Sun') is a dusty little town in Haryana, on the outskirts of Delhi. For two weeks every year, on February 1-15, it gets transformed into a sprawling and comprehensive craftsmen's village. The Surajkund Mela is not just the biggest artisans' fair in the country; it is also unique in that every year there is a different theme to the fair. So, nobody can say, "I've been to it," and ignore this celebration of the essence of Indian culture and traditional crafts.

HISTORY

Surajkund is a historic site, eight km from the southern border of Delhi. The Sun temple stood here during AD 1000, the remains of which can still be seen here. The temple and the enchanting surroundings of this place won the heart of a Tomar chieftain Surajpal, who belonged to a clan of sun worshippers. Raja Surajpal had a sun pool and amphitheatre built in this area with the sun temple at its periphery. After the chieftain Surajpal, who built the complex, the place was named Surajkund. It was around this temple and sun pool that a resort property came up in Surajkund. What began as simple tourist center in 1987 flowered into a center of pilgrimage and a haloed piece of land that celebrates centuries old crafts and traditions of our colorful country at the annual Surajkund Crafts Mela.

THE SPECIAL ATTRACTIONS

This delightful handloom and handicrafts fair is held annually at Surajkund. Skilled Artisans from all over the country display the rich crafts tradition of India in the typical setting of a rural Indian marketplace. Cultural programmes and rural cuisine are also a part of this colorful fair.The theme that changes every year, works on two levels. First, it has a state theme, which dictates the look of the entrance, the fair grounds, and the setting. One can get the specific ambience of the particular state-the characteristic colors, materials, architecture, furniture and decorations. The other is less cosmetic and more purposeful-each year highlights one craft, and about half the stalls are dedicated to that craft. And there are a total of about 400 stalls.So, if the theme is pottery/terracotta, it has stalls that display the various kinds of pottery and clay craft available in the country. The stalls also function as workshops, where artisans from all over the country make their wares: pots, vases, urns, molded images, trinkets.Apart from this, there are stalls that cater to the other crafts, where again one gets first-hand experience of how the artisans work and how things are made. Woodwork, metalwork, papier-mache, weaving, embroidery, sculpture, and bamboo and cane craft are all featured at the Mela.A fair of this magnitude would naturally have supplementary interests. So, one has an equally interesting food section that serves a variety of Indian cuisines, which is traditional although there are several stalls selling fast food like burgers and chow mien too. Apart from that, there is the usual gamut of entertainment-rides and shows for kids, and daylong cultural events, including folk dance and music recitals, with stress on the state theme. The potter's wheel always holds a special enchantment for visitors as the artisans mould pots and pans with their deft fingers.The crafts in the Surajkund Mela are the creation of people coming from the remotest parts of the country. The craftwork of the people rain forest area of Assam and Manipur, the deserts of Rajasthan, the Nilgiri hills of south, the tribal lands of Bastar and from all the other areas come here to display their aesthetic pieces of work.

LEGENDS

The story of how the sun pool came into existence is an interesting tale. Over a thousand years ago, the clan of Tomar chieftains began establishing their supremacy near Delhi. They built their domain here, calling it 'Dellikha'. The Tomars were sun worshippers. One chieftain Raja Surajpal worked to build a sun temple at this site. Legend has it, that it was after this Raja that the place came to be known as Surajkund. But the Tomar kings could not stay here for long. Mauraders vanquished the Tomar clan and desecrated the temple. But the amphitheatre sun pool built adjacent withstood the onslaught of time to become the celebrated fair ground that it is today.

GETTING THERE

How to get there

The Surajkund Crafts Mela is held in the picturesque Surajkund Tourist complex of Haryana Tourism. The complex is eight km from south Delhi, the national capital and a drive from the Indira Gandhi International Airport would take approximately 35 minutes.

By Road

Surajkund is well connected to Delhi, Gurgaon and Faridabad district head quarter towns by road. It is approachable by tour coaches, tourist taxis and other public conveyance.

By Air

The nearest Airport is at Delhi. The complex is 35 minutes drive from the Indira Gandhi International Airport and 25 km from Palam Airport.

By Rail

Delhi is the nearest Railway junction. Faridabad and Gurgaon are both linked to Delhi through Railway lines. From each of these stations travel to Surajkund has to be done by cab/tourist coach. During the Mela period, special transport services link the main shopping centers and interstate bus stands of Delhi, Gurgaon and Faridabad to the Mela grounds.

International Yoga Festivals,Rishikesh

The ‘yoga capital of the wolrd’ is an appropriate setting for an introduction to this ancient practice.This annual festival attracts great yogic masters from all over the world, who arrive at the banks of the Ganges to demonstrate and explore the major traditions of Yoga (hatha, raja, karma, bhakti, mantra, laya and jnana). The town boasts of numerous Yoga school, as well as plenty of places to visit when your charkas are fully aligned.Apart from the Yoga schools, it is easy to be overwhelmed by the many ashrams (rest houses) in Rishikesh that offer courses on meditation, Yoga and Hindu philosophy. The Hatha Yoga and Pranayama meditation classes at Sri Ved Niketan Ashram are well known. The Shivananda Ashram, opposite the Shivananda Jhula, is also a favourite.

Desert Festival,Jaisalmer

Once a year during winters, the sands around Jaisalmer come alive with the brilliant colors, music and laughter of the Desert Festival. Dressed in brilliantly hued costumes, the people of the desert dance and sing haunting ballads of valor, romance and tragedy. The fair has snake charmers, puppeteers, acrobats and folk performers. Camels, of course, play a stellar role in this festival, where the rich and colorful folk culture of Rajasthan is on show. The festival closes with an enchanting sound and light show amidst the sand dunes on a moonlit night.

The Jaisalmer fort provides an ethereal backdrop to the annual desert festival. Sponsored by the Rajasthan State Tourism Corporation, this festival is a joyful celebration of the traditional performing arts and creative crafts of Rajasthan.

CELEBRATIONS

A few days before the spring full moon according to the Hindu calendar, musicians, dancers and performers from all over Rajasthan start moving in colorful camel caravans towards the golden town of Jaisalmer, which dons a festive look. The otherwise barren landscape is splashed with vibrant colors marking the opening of the Desert Festival. The 12th century fort of Jaisalmer, built in yellow sandstone, provides a fairytale background. Over the years, the desert dwellers in their solitude have woven a fascinating tapestry with threads of music and rhythm and the Desert Festival is a celebration of their heritage. It is a chance of a lifetime to see the folk art forms against the landscape that has nurtured them for hundreds of years. With the arrival of the artists, a delightful series of programs begins in and around Jaisalmer. There is music everywhere and at every given hour. Through the winding lanes of the fortified town to the sand dunes and even the rivers of abandoned villages, the music casts a potent spell. Beginning at sunrise, it reaches its zenith under the umbrella of the star-studded sky. Though it is mainly a festival of the performing arts, there are several other events that give a glimpse of the desert culture.

Through the day, visitors can come face to face with the desert craftsmen. Exquisitely embroidered skirts, hand-woven shawls, rugs, carvings on wood and stone, camel decorations, embroidered leather bags, ethnic silver jewelry and terracotta are brought in from all over the desert. These skillfully achieved crafts are objects d'art for the handicraft buff.

Evenings are meant for the main shows of music and dance. Vibrating desert drums can be heard for miles around. Nearly all the variations of performing arts of these desert people are displayed. Continuing till late into the night, the number of spectators swells up each night and the grand finale, on the full moon night, takes place by silvery sand dunes.

Although the basic design of the festival remains the same, each year there are a few new events. Some of the most spectacular and memorable shows of past festivals have been the dream-like pageant, "Blood, Blade and Romance" on the sand dunes recreating the legendary past; the camel tattoo of the Border Security Force, which has a highly trained camel corps to guard the western border; and the pulsating folk ensemble of a hundred musicians.

RITUALS

Camels are not just beasts of burden but an integral part of the desert life and the camel events confirm this fact. Special efforts go into dressing the animal for entering the spectacular competition of the best-dressed camel. Interestingly, there is a folk song to describe the making of the camel's necklace-the Gorband. Camel owners vie with each other for winning the camel races and a feeling of pride is discernible both in the eyes of the owner and his mount that wins. To add some more fun and color, the camel show has two unique events - the camel polo and the camel dance.Other interesting competitions on the fringes are the moustache and turban tying competitions, which not only demonstrate a glorious tradition but also inspire its preservation. Both the turban and the moustache have been centuries old symbols of honor in Rajasthan.Keeping the moustache twisted upwards meant keeping the pride intact while drooping moustaches conveyed complete surrender. Tying a turban is not only an intriguing tradition but an art as well. Varying styles of tying the turban and colors describe the caste, region and also the occasion. To the viewers, it appears complicated but those who have inherited the tradition tie a turban out of meters of cloth at the blink of an eye.

LEGENDS

Unlike the major festivals of Rajasthan, the desert festival has no legends to recount. It is a created event but the music traditions of the desert are so fascinating that conceiving the musical festival came as almost a natural solution for facilitating their preservation. It was also inspired by the Music Festival of Salzburg-though totally different in concept and content. Both the towns exude music and have a heavy inflow of tourists. But unlike the Salzburg Festival, the shows of the Jaisalmer Festival are not ticketed. Sponsored by the state tourism corporation, it has been designed to promote tourism in the enigmatic Thar Desert.Once the festival is over, it certainly leaves behind a nostalgic feeling. Some connoisseurs of music have been to the festival more than once and there is a tourist from Holland who has attended the festival four times.Today, this traditional extravaganza is a coveted event for music lovers-the performers as well as the listeners. For the performers, it has become a prestigious event to participate in. It has also helped find new talent and expended patronage to many artistes.

REGIONAL CELEBRATIONS

Jaisalmer is the only place where this desert festival is celebrated with great zest and zeal. Rajasthan being a popular tourist destination, the festival adds to its color.

PLACES TO VISIT

In order to witness its colorful festivities, one must visit Jaisalmer, the golden sand dunes where the festival takes place every year.

Khajuraho Dance Festival,Madhya Pradesh

Once the religious capital of Chandela dynasty, one of the powerful Rajput dynasties of Central India, Khajuraho is now famous for it's enchanting temples and it's legendary Khajuraho dance festival. The week- long festival of classical dances is held every year in February/March against the spectacular backdrop of the magnificently lit temples. This cultural festival highlights the richness of the various Indian classical dance styles such as Kathak, Bharathanatyam, Odissi, Kuchipudi, Manipuri and Kathakali with performances of some of the best exponents in the field. Modern Indian dance has also been added recently.

The dances are performed in an open-air auditorium, usually in front of the Chitragupta Temple dedicated to Surya (the Sun God) and the Vishwanatha Temple dedicated to Lord Shiva, belonging to the western group.Along with the renowned performers, a number of craftsmen display their crafts to the visitors. There is an open market where local articles are there for sale. Khajuraho Dance Festival is conducted as a celebration of the cultural heritage of Khajuraho temples and preserving it for the coming generation.

Khajuraho Dance Festival is held every spring in the town of Khajuraho in order to celebrate the glory of the temples. It is believed that classical dance basically comes from the Hindu temples and attained it's maturity. This Festival is a cultural festival for the celebration of the Indian arts- dance and music handling down from generation to generation. The Khajuraho Festival of Dances shows the best classical dancers and dances in the country. It is held during the month of March from 6th to 12th. Different classical dances are presented during this festival, like the -Kathak, Bharatnatyam, Kuchipudi, Odissi, Manipuri etc.

The main idea behind Khajuraho Dance Festival is to make the cultural heritage of Khajuraho relevant to the present society and preserving it for the coming generation. On this occasion a number of renowned artists and craftsmen participates in the workshop and seminar and present their art to the numerous visitors and tourist. And during this seven days festival, there is also a market in an open field where the visitors can get the entire local made articles of Khajuraho. This festival is known not only in our country but also to the outside world at large.

Natyanjali Festivals,Chidambaram

The festival in the honor of the great Cosmic Dancer or Lord Natraja (a form of Lord Shiva) is held every year in Chidambaram during February or March. This five-day long festival starts from the auspicious occasion of the Maha Shivaratri day. According to the Hindu mythology, Lord Nataraja is the Lord of Dances and hence the festival features dance performances in the 'Prakara' of the magnificent Chidambaram temple, which is dedicated to Lord Shiva. The 1000-year old temple provides a fitting backdrop to the spectacular event taking place under the golden roof of the temple showing pillars that depict Lord Nataraja in the classic 108 poses from the classical dance form of Tamil Nadu known as Bharatanatyam. Renowned dancers from all over India pay their homage to the deity by performing in the honor of Lord Nataraja at Natyanjali festival. The Department of Tourism of Government of Tamil Nadu, the Ministry Of Tourism of Government of India and the Natyanjali Trust of Chidambaram jointly organize this festival. One can almost feel the elation of the dancers as they go into a trance while performing with exquisite acumen and skill that comes with years of training and practice. The evocative 'Abhinaya' (acting) and the subtle movements of each of their body parts are worth seeing. Performing at the festival is considered one of the greatest honors offered to these classical dancers as they dance to create the 'Padams' and 'Varnams' in the course of creating an imaginary figure of the Lord Nataraja. The dance festival re-establishes music and dance as the universal language .

Nishagandhi Festival,Thiruvanathapuram

Thiruvananthapuram, capital city of Kerala is located in the southern most region of India. It is an excellent base to explore the interiors of Kerala. The Kanakakunnu Palace here is used to stage many cultural meets and programmes. The Nishagandhi open-air theatre in the palace compound holds a dance festival every year, from February 21st to 27th. Renowned dancers will perform Bharathanatyam, Mohiniyattam, Kathak, Odissi, modern ballet and other folk forms. Artist and connoisseurs of dance from all over India come to enjoy this cultural treat. The festival organised by the Tourism Development Corporation is free and is usually accompanied with music. It gives a fascinating glimpse of India's rich dance heritage.

How to get there

Air:

The airport 6kms from down town area is an important entry point into India with connecting flights to Maldives, Sri Lanka and many countries to the West of Arabian Sea and many other important ports.

Rail:

Thiruvananthapuram is an important railway terminus on the south-western coast with train services from all parts of the country. With in the region too Thiruvananthapuram is connected with express train services to all major centres.

Road:

At the junction of four National Highways Nos.7, 17, 45 and 47 Thiruvananthapuram is covered by very good network of roads that links the city to all parts of the southern India.

MARCH – APRIL

la Mohalla,Punjab

The ancient Sikh festival of Holla Mohalla is celebrated in the month of Phalguna, the day after Holi, and is a time for Sikhs to reaffirm their commitment to the brotherhood of man and their dedication to the Khalsa Pantha

Back in 1757, when the tenth Guru Govind Singh was around, it was felt that Holi - the festival of colour and happiness - had lost its original meaning amidst growing decadence and mayhem. Not one to tolerate such behaviour, the reformist Guru decided to re-establish the essence of Holi while restoring the Khalsa traditions. The result was the Holla Mohalla.

Many colourful processions mark this festival, and they are particularly spectacular in Anandpur, Sahib and Muktsar. Sikhs dress up in traditional martial costumes (especially the Nihangs or the "Order of the Blue-Clad Farmer-Warriors") and celebrate the day with competitions in archery, fencing, horse riding and shooting. In some areas, battles are re-enacted and cannons fired as a salutary reminder of the traditional warring trait of the Sikh religion. Although clearly a spectacular performance, watching is a risky affair... these men battle hard, even in jest!

Gangaur Fair,Jaipur

The Gangaur Festival is the colourful and most important local festival of Rajasthan and is observed throughout the State with great fervour and devotion by womenfolk who worship Gauri, the consort of Lord Shiva during July-Aug. It is the celebration of monsoon, harvest and marital fidelity in Jaipur.Gan is a synonym for Shiva and Gaur which stands for Gauri or Parvati who symbolises saubhagya (marital bliss). Gauri is the embodiment of perfection and conjugal love which is why the unmarried women worship her for being blessed with good husbands, while married women do so for the welfare, health and long life of their spouses and a happy married life.The festival commences on the first day of Chaitra, the day following Holi and continues for 18 days. For a newly-wedded girl, it is binding to observe the full course of 18 days of the festival that succeeds her marriage. Even unmarried girls fast for the full period of 18 days and eat only one meal a day.Images of Isar and Gauri are made of clay for the festival. In some families, permanent wooden images are painted afresh every year by reputed painters called matherans on the eve of the festival. A distinct difference between the idols of Teej and Gangaur is that the Idol will have a canopy during the Teej Festival while the Gangaur idol would not have a canopy.

The ladies decorate their hands and feet by drawing designs with mehendi (myrtle paste). The figures drawn range from the Sun, Moon and the stars to simple flowers or geometrical designs.Ghudlias are earthen pots with numerous holes all around and a lamp lit inside them. On the evening of the 7th day after Holi, unmarried girls go around singing songs of ghudlia carrying the pots with a burning lamp inside, on their heads. On their way, they collect small presents of cash, sweets, jaggery, ghee, oil etc. This continues for 10 days i.e. upto the conclusion of the Gangaur Festival when the girls break their pots and throw the debris into a well or a tank and enjoy a feast with the collections made.

The festival reaches its climax during the last three days. Unmarried girls and married women decorate the images and make them look like living figures. At an auspicious hour in the afternoon, a procession is taken out to a garden, tank or a well with the images of Isar and Gauri, placed on the heads of married women.

Ugadhi

Andhra, Karnataka, Maratha New Year’s Day

The waxing and waning phases of the moon form the month in the Telugu, Kannada and Marathi calendar, a chandra mana calendar based on the movement of the moon. The 30-day month starts on the day after new moon day (amavasya) and ends on the following new moon day. The twelve months in this calendar are called Chaitra, Vaisakha, Jyeshta, Ashada, Sravana, Bhadrapadha, Aswija, Karthika, Agrahayana, Pausha, Magha, and Phalguna. The start of Chaitra is new year’s day. In olden days, the thithi denoted what we call date. New moon day, amavasya, with the 14 thithis that follow – called prathama, dwithiya, truthiya, chaturthi, panchami, sashti, sapthami, ashtami, navami, dasami, ekadasi, dwadasi, trayodasi, chaturdasi – and full moon day, pournami, with the 14 thithis that follow and have the same names from prathama to chaturdasi thus comprise the month. The fortnight beginning with amavasya is called suddha paksha; and the fortnight beginning with poornima bahula paksha. Traditionally on Ugadhi a household’s menu includes the neem blossom preparation nimma kusuma bakshana. Also, the panchanga is read and explained.

'Gudi Padwa'

The Maharashtrian New Year's Day is celebrated in March/April, on the first day of the Hindu month - Chaitra and marks the beginning of spring or "Vasant".

This day is said to be the one on which Lord Brahma created the world after deluge. It is a day of great festivity and rejoicing as it also commemorates the triumphant expeditions of the Maratha armies of the great Chatrapati Shivaji Maharaj, the most beloved leader of the Maharashtrians. It is a day when the brave Marathas returned home from their successful expeditions of war.

Gudi Padwa is considered a very auspicious day. New ventures are begun, house-warming poojas are performed, and people also choose to buy gold, silver or property on this day.
New Year is celebrated in different states of India under various names, for e.g. Ugadi in Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka, Gudi Padva in Maharashtra. The Sindhis celebrate it as Cheti chand.
Gudi means a "banner" raised to announce victory and joy and "Padva" is another name for "Pratipada" which is the first day of a lunar month.

How to celebrate Gudi Padva?

the "Gudi" is supposed to drive away evil from the house and are expected to usher in prosperity and good fortune. People get up early and clean their houses, decorating them with intricate rangoli (colored rice flour designs for the floor) designs. This worship to
A brightly colored silk cloth is first tied to a wooden pole with a brass or silver goblet or kalash is placed upturned atop it. Then garlands of sweet sugary battasa, neem leaves and orange -yellow marigold flowers are tied to the pole. This is called the "Gudi". The "Gudi" or decorated pole is placed where it can be seen by passers by.

We are getting the gudi ready.

This auspicious day also marks the beginning of the consumption of summer foods like melons, jack-fruit, mangoes , sprouted gram and more. A variety of sherbets such as Mango Panha and special sweets like Puran Poli are served. Traditional Maharashtrians have the custom of eating a couple of bitter neem leaves fried in ghee and mixed with sugar. They are eaten on Gudi Padva to ensure good health. The neem paste is believed to purify the blood and build up immunity in the body against diseases.

Gudi Padva is considered one of the auspicious days in the year when people start new ventures.
Gudi Padwa Recipes

Traditionally, bittersweet leaves of the neem tree are eaten on this day. A paste of crushed neem leaves, cumin seeds, jaggery and salt is taken before eating any food in the morning.
In the southern states, Puliogare-a sour tamarind rice dish, Bobbatlu, Holige- sweet stuffed bread and Ugadi Pachadi made of jaggery, raw mango pieces, neem flowers and tamarind is prepared. In Maharastra, Shrikhand -a fragrant yogurt dessert, with Poori-a fried puffy bread is prepared.

It is believed that on 'Gudi Padva' :

The Universe was created by Brahma.
Satyuga (The Age of Truth and Justice) began.
Shri Rama returned to Ayodhya victorious, after having killed Ravana.
This is one of the 3 and a half days in the Hindu Lunar calendar, whose every moment is considered auspicious.
The festival is celebrated as Ugadi in Karnataka. Seven, Nine or eleven haystacks are placed on a farmland and are set alight. The ashes are mixed while ploughing the farm.

The Vedas proclaimed that the year should consist of 12 months and the world has accepted it.

Holi and Dhuleti ( Festival of Colour )

Amongst India's innumerable festivals, Holi ranks as the most colourful. It celebrates the arrival of spring and death of demoness Holika, it is a celebration of joy and hope. Holi provides a refreshing respite from the mundane norms as people from all walks of life enjoy themselves. In a tight knit community, it also provided a good excuse for letting off some steam and settling old scores, without causing physical injury.

Holi continues to be celebrated with great vigour through out India. Countless Hindi films have brought the vibrant colours of the festival to the screen. Indians all over the world eagerly await the Festival of Colours, as bonfires are lit to banish the cold dark nights of winter and usher in warmer spring. Dhuleti, day after Holi, is the actual festival of colours, when everything in sight is covered in a riot of colours.

Twin towns of Nandagow ( where Lord Krishna grew up ) and Barsana ( where Shri Radha grew up ), near Mathura, are the epicentre of the celebrations. Lord Krishna, while growing up in Vraj, popularised the festival with his ingenious pranks. Gopies of Vraj responded with equal enthusiasm and the festivities have continued ever since. Role reversal, feminism etc. are accepted customs for the duration of the festival! Men and women of Vraj clash in a colourful display of battle of the sexes.

Celebrations start a week earlier than rest of India. Men of Nandagow raid Barsana with hopes of raising their flag over Shri Radhikaji's temple. They receive a thunderous welcome as the women of Barsana greet them with long wooden sticks. The men are soundly beaten as they attempt to rush through town to reach the relative safety of Shri Radhikaji's temple. Men are well padded as they are not allowed to retaliate. In this mock battle the men try their best not to be captured. Unlucky captives can be forcefully lead away, thrashed and dressed in female attire before being made to dance!!

Rush through Barsana is far more lethal than running with the bulls in Spain, at least you don't have to marry them one day! Famous poets like Surdas, Nand-das, Kumbhan-das and others, have written beautifully as to how Lord Krishna was similarly received and forced to wear a sari, forced to wear make-up and made to dance before being released by the gopies of Vraj.

The next day, men of Barsana reciprocate by invading Nandagow. Clouds of pink and white powder mark the frenzy of activity taking place in it's narrow streets. A naturally occurring orange-red dye, Kesudo, is used to drench all participants. Today, the women of Nadagow beat the invaders from Barsana. It is a colourful site. In the interest of tourisum and safety, the state tourist board has set up excellent vantage points for the public. A large open ground, on the outskirts of the town is specially set aside for the most magnificent display of the festivities.

The next day, the temples in Vrindavan celebrate the festival with great guesto. The renowned temple of Bakai-Bihari, the beloved lord of the 15th century saint Haridas, is at the centre of the festivities. Clouds of pink and white descend upon the pilgrims, as the Lord of Vrindavan plays holi with all his beloved visitors.

The festival moves on to other parts of Vraj. Soon enough, it is Dhulati and entire India celebrates the joys of spring as the "festival of colour".

Gulal-Kund in Vraj is a beautiful little lake, set in a delightful groves near the mountain Goverdhan, in the Mathura district. Here the festival is commemorated on a more regular basis. Pilgrims who visit the holy land of Vraj, can see the re-enactments of Holi throughout the year at this lake. Local boys, acting in the Krishna-Lila drama troupes re-enact the scenes of holi for the pilgrims.

Royal courts all over North India refined the festival in to an art form of its own. Rajput warriors of the Rajasthani courts used to show off their equestrian skills during the festival. Rajput men would ride their steeds through the white and pink clouds of colour, throwing colour powders on each other. Even the members of the royal families were not immune from being drenched by colour. The entire court would be drenched in saffron water and an orange-red dye of the "kasuda" flowers.

Pushti-Marga temples, spread throughout North and Western States of India, celebrate the festival in a way reminiscent of rajput courts. The Deity, and the laity, are liberally sprinkled with perfumes, saffron water, kesudo, and covered in sandalwood aswell as the white and pink powder, abil and gulal. Joyous celebration is accompanied by classical music, poetry and folk songs appropriate for the occasion. Deity's white clothes' are soon transformed into a mass of colour as gold and silver syringes spray colourful water on all participants.

The celebrations officially usher in the pleasant season of love, spring. In the Pushti-Marga temples, the festivities last for almost a month. Beginning on the day of Vasant-Panchami, the festivals last till the day after Holi. This helps prolong the season of joy.

Poem :- The weather is most pleasant and the spring flowers are in full bloom. Skies are clear, days are warm and nights are pleasantly cool. What more could you ask for, except to be covered in the "ranga" (colour) of your beloved!

Panguni Uthiram

Falls in the month Panguni (March-April). This month is special because of the star Uthiram and pournami occurring together. Besides, it is on Panguni pournami Uthiram that the marriage of Parvati and Parameswara, Muruga and Devasena, and Andal (also known as Kothai) and Rangamannar took place. Again, Valmiki’s Ramayan says it is on this day and star that Sita’s marriage with Rama was celebrated. From Brahmanda Puranam we learn that on Panguni Uthiram every holy water joins Thumburu teertha, one of seven sacred tanks in Tirupati Tirumala. The ancients chose Uthiram to convey to humans that it is for underlining the glory of grahasta dharma (married life) that the Almighty manifests in the marital state as Uma Maheswara, Sita Rama, and Radha Krishna – despite his changelessness, sans childhood or youth or old age. The Lord is indeed a Nitya Kalyana Murthi. It is our duty to celebrate this day when the Lord, in both Shiva and Vishnu temples, appears to devotees in his married state. On Panguni Uthiram, in all places where Lord Subrahmanya has a temple, his devotees carry in a kavadi the requisites for puja for him, in fulfilment of vows. Such vow fulfilment by devotees carrying kavadis is a special feature of Subrahmanya temples wherever they happen to be.

Sri Rama Navami

Falls in Panguni (March-April). Under the chandra mana computation this festival could also occur in Chaitra (April-May). Of Maha Vishnu’s ten avatars (manifestations) with which everyone is familiar, two are rooted in the popular mind: Krishnavatar and Ramavatar. These are avatars in which the Almighty descended to earth and lived among humans. Sri Rama was born on sukla paksha navami with Punarpoosam star in the month Panguni (Chaitra, under chandra mana). Through his life he demonstrated that Vaishnavism is what embodies love, character, integrity and equanimity. And his birthday has been celebrated since the hoary past. Consider what ancient texts say about the efficacy of Rama nama. This name is a shaivite and vaishnavite combination: the second letter “ra” in Narayana and the second letter “ma” in Namahshivaya combine to become the word Rama. This is the taraka mantra, sings Saint Tyagaraja. There was once a man who looked after his family through resort to robbery and killing of bird and beast. A sage who happened to pass that way asked the man whether he knew it was a sin to rob and kill. The man answered, “But I do these not for myself alone, I have a wife and family; and, since they share in the sin, only a small part of it will attach to me.” Verify if this is really so, the sage asked him. The man went home, and asked his family members: “Committing sinful actions, I look after you; do you, or do you not, have a share in that sin?” Their answer was that since it was his responsibility to look after them, no part of the sin would attach to them. The man recounted their reply to the sage and beseeched him to tell of a means to get liberated from sin. The sage pointed to a maramara tree and asked him to do japa repeating its name. And the man kept doing so even as an anthill of mud and leaves grew over him. As he repeated it, the word maramara became transfigured as Rama Rama. The legend is that this man was Valmiki who went on to write the epic Ramayan. Another legend has it that there was a dispute once in Kailash as to who should be appointed leader of Shiva’s ganas, or armies, and it was settled that it would be the one who circled the world first. Shiva’s forces immediately took to their mount to go round the world. Lord Vinayaka, however, wrote the taraka mantra “Rama” and went round the word, thereby acquiring the benefit of circling the earth. And he became ganapati or chief of ganas. Since then he has come to be known as Ganapati. Such is the power of the name Sri Rama bears. It is his birthday on a navami that we celebrate as Sri Rama Navami

APRIL- MAY

CHITRA POORNIMA

Occurs in April-May, on the day on which the star Chitra and full moon come together – a day when earth receives the combined effulgence of the moon and the star Chitra. A special day and special festival. Poornima is a day dear to the Mother. Both full moon and new moon days are good for propitiating forefathers. In astrology, moon is matru karaka. Austerities on this day please the spirit of one’s mother. It is on this day that the Umamaheswara vratam is observed. Ancients believed that austerities on poornima in the months Chittirai and Aippasi keep the souls of ancestors resting in peace. Chitra Poornima is, according to scriptures, the birthday of Chitragupta who keeps account of our virtues and sins. This day is one on which austerities are observed also to propitiate him. Legend has it that once Indra, offending Guru and incurring sin, reached earth in quest of a remedy, and happened to see a Shiva linga under a kadamba tree by the side of a pond. With golden hued lotuses from the pond, he worshipped the Shiva linga and was redeemed from his sin. And he had a temple constructed at the spot. That spot is present-day Madurai in South India with its Meenakshi temple. It was on Chitra Poornima that Indra got cleansed of his sins. On this day in the Madurai Meenakshi temple Devendra puja continues to be performed. In vaishnavite shrines like Tirupati and Azhagar koil, there is a perennial spring known as Akasa Ganga, in which, according to Brahmanda puranam, every holy river joins on Chitra Poornima. The devout bathe in Akasa Ganga on this day.

Baisakhi,Pujab

The Vaishakha period of April and May is filled with festivals of fun, frolic and merry-making. These festivals assume various forms, rituals and contents in the celebrations in Punjab, South India, Manipur and Assam. There are colourful displays in a compendium made up of abstruse philosophy as also light-hearted livety.

India’s rich and glorious civilization is mirrored in its innumerable fairs and festivals. They mark the seasons which signal to man the time for work and the time for play and relaxation, the commencement of the agricultural cycle with sowing in spring, and its culmination with the harvesting of the golden grain. And then, of course, we have, in endless variations of legend and myth, the hallowed perceptions that there is an ever-renewed war of light and darkness, of the divine and the demoniac in the unceasing evolution of the world.

Baisakhi, also called Vaisakhi, is a harvest festival which is celebrated on the thirteenth of April according to the solar calendar. It is celebrated in North India, particularly in Punjab, when the rabi crop is ready for harvesting. This tough agricultural operation is rendered into a lighter occupation by merry community festivities such as the Bhangra dance by men, who pound the ground with vigorous steps accompanied with singing. Women too, break into a revelry of dances principally the Gidda dance, executed with fervour and rhythmic exactitude. On these occasions, men and women adorn themselves with gay coloured clothes and traditional jewellery. Generally, the sites of these festivities are on the banks of the rivers which have their sacred import with myths and legends woven around their origin and names.

Baisakhi has a special meaning for the Sikhs. On this day in 1699, their tenth Guru Gobind Singh organized the order of the Khalsa. On this day also, Guru Arjan Das was martyred by the Muslim rulers who, in barbaric cruelty, threw him alive into a cauldron of boiling oil. Again, on this day in 1875, Swami Dayanand Saraswati founded the Arya Samaj—a reformed sect of Hindus who are devoted to the Vedas for spiritual guidance and have discarded idol worship. This day is once again of immense religious import to the Buddhists because Gautama Buddha attained enlightenment and Nirvana on this auspicious day.

Baisakhi day is observed as the Naba Barsha (New Year) in Bengal. On 14th April, the people take a ritual bath in the River Ganga or any other river or a nearby tank and bedeck their houses with rangoli (floral patterns) drawn on the entrance floor of their homes with a paste made of rice powder.

Baishakhi festival is celebrated twice a year in Himachal Pradesh in honour of Goddess Jwalamukhi. This happens in the months of Vaishakha (April-May) and Kartika (November). A temple near the hot springs is dedicated to the Goddess. Her image is so fabricated that a jet of flames issues forth from the mouth of the deity. This flame is held sacred and is worshipped. The neighbouring hot springs are a popular place for a holy dip by thousands of pilgrims on the days when the fairs are held.

In the South, Baisakhi is celebrated to mark the Tamil and Telugu New Year. In a ceremonial march, people take out wooden chariots in a procession. The temples in Kerala celebrate Pooram festivals usually in honour of Vishnu. Among them, the Pooram observed in the Vadakkunathan Swamy (Shiva) temple of Trichur is famous. The temple stands in the heart of the town in the Tekkin Kadu Maidan, once a forest of rosewood trees. Many smaller Poorams calld Cheru Poorams also take place. Caparisoned elephants with gold-plated ornamental coverings embellished with garlands and coloured umbrellas, mohair whisks, round, coloured hand fans, along with panchavadyam (a combination of five traditional musical instruments of Kerala), emerge from the surrounding temples. The elephants coverage on the main temple after circumambulation and prayers and thereafter disperse. In the afternoon, the primary Pooram commences with the two parties called Thiruvambadi and Paramekkavu, each along with its fifteen fully caparisoned elephants, accompanied by the traditional musicians of Kerala. After the procession has gone round the temple, it arrives on the vast maidan by evening. The elephants of various parties line up opposite each other and exchange their brightly-coloured umbrellas to perform the Kudamattam ceremony. This is a most impressive and spectacular sight. The entire atmosphere resounds with the high notes of music and by 9 pm the first Pooram comes to an end.

The second Pooram commences at midnight with a peculiar musical tone called the Elangithara Melan played under a tree called the elangi. Then starts a procession headed by fire torches and followed by the elephants which make for a thrilling scene, surpassing the beauty and grandeur of the earlier Pooram. The tempo of the Pooram comes to an end by early morning with a competitive display of fireworks among the two parties. The celebrations attract not only the people of Kerala but others from far and wide.

Another festival of note in South India takes place in honour of the Goddess Kamarchi Amman whose temple is located in Pondichery. The goddess is worshipped three times a day when the idol, duly decorated with jewelry and flowers, is taken out in daily processions on different mounts consisting of a horse, a lion, a swing or a chariot. Musicians accompany the procession. On the ninth day of the festival, between 10 am and 5 pm, the image is placed in a wooden chariot and taken out in a grand procession through Pondichery city.

To return to north India again, Bihar state celebrates a festival in Vaishakha (April) and Kartika (November) in honour of the Sun God, Surya, at a place called Surajpur-Baragaon. This is essentially a village where, according to an ancient practice, people bathe in the temple tank and pay obeisance to the Sun God while offering flowers and water from the sacred river Ganga. It may be mentioned here that the Sun God holds a special place in the hearts of the people of Bihar and Orissa—particularly the latter where the temple at Konark manifests this deep veneration.

North-East India with its complex of seven states, inhabited by people of different ethnic origins, languages and cultures, has its own panoply of spring festivals. Perhaps the most colourful is the is the exquisite festival called Lai Haraoba in the local Meitei dialect, celebrated by the people of Manipur. There are three variations of it peculiar to Moirang, Kanglei and Chapka. Of these, the one at Moirang is more widely known and attracts a larger audience because of its component of dance called Kamba-Thoibi. The celebration is a balanced composite of music, dance and sport which blend into a single entertaining event.

The word Lai in Lai Haraoba stands for God which is perhaps a derivative from the Sanskrit word Linga—the symbol of Lord Shiva. The festivalof Lai Haraoba is considered a synthesis of the old Tantric faith of the Manipuris combined with Shaivism. Although Manipuris’ major faith appertains to the Hindu gods Shiva and Vishnu, as also their incarnations Rama and Krishna, they zealously worship their distinctive tribal gods called Umang Lais numbering as many as 361. The Umang Lais means the gods of the forests, to whom the festival of Lai Haraoba is dedicated from the earlier tribal days when Manipur had sacred groves.

The festival of Lai Haraoba lasts a fortnight with the gods descending from the Heavens and returning there to when the celebrations terminate. During the festival, the creation of the earth is re-enacted by a quaint ceremony each year. Nine gods called Lai-purmthous give the vital elements of he earth to seven goddesses called Lainuras, who dance on water and throw the essence of the earth into water. Thereafter, Maibis level the created earth. Maibis like the devadasis, are consecrated girls who acquire this status when they exhibit their capacity to pass into a trance as if possessed by a god. Maibas, male priests, also perform a vital role along with the Maibis.

The time is now ripe for performing the Laipon dance, symbolizing the birth of a god. The god is known as Nong-Pokning-thuo who is believed to be the incarnation of Lord Shiva. Lord Shiva assumes youth and with a stick on his shoulders emerges from a hut and meets Panthoibi, the Manipuri name of Parvati, and marries her. After this divine union, a dance-drama is enacted when gestures and mudras purport that with their creative forces the earth has been re-energized as also the sustaining principals. When the gods feel that the earth has plenty of cotton and fish catch, they return to their celestial abode in a boat. After their departure, the empty thatched hut is set ablaze lest is should get haunted by evil spirits. With the burning of the house, the festival of Lai Haraoba finally comes to an end.

The brightest of the seven jewels in the eastern crown of India is Assam with its emerald green rice fields, undulating tea gardens with a backdrop of the Himalayas in the north covered with a pearls white snow line. Assam has been home to a number of ethnic groups professing different faiths. The Ahoms who came through the eastern gateways were Buddhists but soon embraced Hinduism with its many faces. Assam was also the birthplace of Shankar Deva who taught a new reformed Hinduism—Vaishnavism—with its many faces. Assam was also the birthplace of Shankar Deva who taught a new reformed Hinduism—Vaishnavism—with its namghars where people foregathered to chant hymns. All these varied strands were woven into a colourful fabric of social life and culture. The many Bihus or festivals of the Assamese are a celebration of life, of joie de vivre and a manifestation of the exuberance of the people. Perhaps, the most important of these Bihus is the Rangali Bihu celebrated on the 14th of April, the Spring festival and the Assamese equivalent of Baisakhi. Young women clad in their silken raiment, dance to the rhythm of the drum. Their costume consists of a sarong-like skirt known as the mekhala usually hand-woven in the golden fibred muga silk of Assam with wide decorated borders in bright red. They wear matching chaddars or shawl-like pieces of the same silken fabric draped over the upper part of the body and trucked in at the waist. The galaxy of the young women and men dancing and singing at the time of the Rangali Bihu is a colourful spectacle.

Festivals are occasions when people cast aside their misunderstandings and ill-feelings and refurbish relations of fellow feeling and amity.

Flavour Food Festival

This is an Indian food festival in which renowned hotels in Kerala participate. Continental, Chinese, North Indian and South Indian and many more varieties of food are also available. It takes place at Trivandrum in February every year.

Pooram

Thrissur Pooram - the spectacular festival of light and colour, percussion and elephants pooram of poorams'

Thrissur Pooram - considered to be the mother of all poorams, is a cultural highlight par excellence, celebrated in the Malayalam month Medam (April/May).

The two century old festival of spectacular procession of caparisoned elephants and enthralling percussion performances in a never ending succession is an 36 hours marathon event of incredible beauty, a feast for the eye and the ear, unfolding between 6 am to 12 noon the other day. Different from the usual temple festival, Thrissur Pooram is participated and conducted by people across all barriers of religion and caste. This is explained with the genesis of the festival.

Historical background

Before the advent of Thrissur Pooram, the largest temple festival during summer in central Kerala was the one-day festival held at Aarattupuzha, 12 km south of the town. Temples in and around Thrissur were regular participants of this religious exercise until they were once denied entry by the responsible chief of the Peruvanam area of Cherpu, known for its Namboodiri supremacy. As an act of reprisal and also in a bid to assuage their wounded feelings, Prince Rama Varma (1751-1805), also known as Sakthan Thampuran and enthroned as the ruler of the erstwhile Cochin state invited all these temples to bring their deities to Thrissur where they could pay obeisance to Lord (Sri) Vakunnathan, the deity of the Vadakunnathan temple. Further he directed the main temples of Thrissur, Thruvambadi and Pamamekkavu, to extend all help and support to these temples. It is this historical background that determines the course of the Pooram program and it is specifically the ruler's antipathy to the brahmin aristocracy to open Thrissur pooram for the common man.

Religious background:

Adhering to the medieval Peruvanam tradition, the festival is confined to the temples of Devi (goddess) and Sastha (divine combination of Shiva and Vishnu). Ten deities from the neighboring temples pay obeisance to the presiding deiety of Thrissur and only spectator of the Pooram events, Lord Siva at the Sree Vadakkunnathan temple, situated in the heart of the town. Principle participants are Paramekkavu and Tiruvambadi, close to the Vadakunnathan temple. Also participating and known as 'Cherupooram' are the suburban temples at Kanimangalam, Karamukku, Choorakkattukara, Laloor, Ayyanthole, Neithilakkavu and Chembukkavu, Panamukkampilly, altogether 8 deities. The sprawling Thekkinkadi maidan, en circling the Vadakumnathan temple, is the main venue of the festival.

Namboodiri: name of the brahmin caste in Kerala
Brahmin: the caste of the priests
Pooram: the highest caste in the hindu society the meeting point of all the arts
Malayalam: language of Kerala

Baisakhi Festival

Baisakhi is one of the major festivals of Sikhs and is celebrated with lot of enthusiasm and gaiety in the state of Punjab and all throughout the world where there is a significant Sikh population. For the large farming community of Punjab, Baisakhi Festival marks the time for harvest of rabi crops and they celebrate the day by performing joyful bhangra and gidda dance. For the Sikh community, Baisakhi Festival has tremendous religious significance as it was on a Baisakhi Day in 1699, that Guru Gobind Singh, the tenth Sikh Guru laid the foundation of Panth Khalsa-the Order of the Pure Ones.

Date of Baisakhi

Baisakhi Festival falls on the first day of Vaisakh month (April-May) according to Nanakshahi or Sikh Calendar. For this reason, Baisakhi is also popularly known as Vaisakhi. According to English calendar, the date of Baisakhi corresponds to April 13 every year and April 14 once in every 36 years. This difference in Baisakhi dates is due to the fact that day of Baisakhi is reckoned according to solar calendar and not the lunar calendar. The auspicious date of Baisakhi is celebrated all over India under different names and different set of rituals and celebrations. Baisakhi date coincides with 'Rongali Bihu' in Assam, 'Naba Barsha' in Bengal, Puthandu in Tamil Nadu and 'Pooram Vishu' in Kerala.

Baisakhi Celebrations

People of Punjab celebrate the festival of Baisakhi with exuberance and devotion. As the festival has tremendous importance in Sikh religion, major activities of the day are organized in Gurdwaras. People wake up early to prepare for the day. Many also take bath in the holy river to mark the auspicious occasion. After getting ready people pay a visit to their neighbourdood gurdwara and take part in the special prayer meeting organized for the day. At the end of the Baisakhi ardas, congregates receive specially prepared Kara prasad or sweetened semolina. This is followed by a guru ka langar or community lunch. Later, during the day people of Sikh faith take out a Baisakhi procession under the leadership of Panj piaras. The procession moves through the major localities of the city amidst the rendition of devotional songs by the participating men, women and children. Mock duels, bhangra and gidda performances make the procession joyous and colourful.

Celebrations by Farmers

For the large farming community of Punjab and Haryana, Baisakhi marks a New Year’s time as it is time to harvest rabi crop. On Baisakhi, farmers thank god for the bountiful crop and pray for good times ahead. People buy new clothes and make merry by singing, dancing and enjoying the best of festive food. Cries of "Jatta aai Baisakhi", rent the skies as gaily men and women break into the bhangra and gidda dance to express their joy. Everyday farming scenes of sowing, harvesting, winnowing and gathering of crops are expressed through zestful movements of the body to the accompaniment of ballads and dhol music. In several villages of Punjab Baisakhi Fairs are organized where besides other recreational activities, wrestling bouts are also held.

JUNE –JULY

Hemis Festival,Ladakh

Hemis Festival is celebrated at the Hemis Monastery in Ladakh (the biggest monastery in Ladakh) and marks the birth anniversary of Guru Padmasambahava (Guru Rimpoche), the founder of Tibetan Buddhism. He is believed to have fought with demons for the safety of the local people.

Hemis festival is celebrated on the 10th day (Tses-Chu) of the Tibetan lunar month and lasts for two days. The festival occurs only once in 12 years (as per the Tibetan calender it takes place in the year of the Monkey).

During the Hemis festival, a two storey high "Thankga," a religious icon painted or embroidered on cloth, depicting Padmasambahava is ritually exhibited. Ladakh getting ready to unveil the "Thankga" and celebrating the auspicious occasion on June 28th and 29th.

People who are touring India make it a point to be in Ladakh during this festival, where they can witness excellent masked dances that are performed to the beats of cymbals, drums & long horns. A colorful fair, displaying some beautiful handicrafts, is also the highlight of Hemis festival.

Sindhu Darshan Festival,Ladakh

The Sindhu Darshan Festival, as the name suggests, is a celebration of River Sindhu, also known as the Indus. Last year, the Festival was organised from 6-8 June 2000 at Shey livened up by the presence of a wide variety of cultural troupes from various corners of India. Troupes from States where the mighty Rivers of India run, brought with them water from those rivers in earthen pots and immersed the pots in the Indus, thereby mingling the waters from all over India with that of the mighty 'Indus', the river that gave India its name.

The Prime Minister laid the foundation stone of the Sindhu Cultural Center last year and also inaugurated the new office complex of Ladakh Autonomous Hill Development Council.This complex will be helpful in bringing out the unique culture of Ladakh region and its people. The facilities proposed at the complex include an auditorium for seating 500 people, an open air theatre, an exhibition gallery, a music room, a small library and a souvenir shop where Ladakh handicrafts could be available to visiting tourists.The Sindhu Darshan Festival is organised annually at Leh. People travel for a Darshan and Puja of the River Sindhu (Indus), which originates from the Mansarovar in Tibet. The festival is a celebration of this river. The Festival aims at projecting the Sindhu River as a symbol of multi-dimensional cultural identity, communal harmony and peaceful co-existence in India. It is also an opportunity for people from around the country and overseas to visit the beautiful regions of Leh and Ladakh.As part of the celebrations, various groups from different states in India bring water from the other mighty rivers in the country in earthen pots and immerse these pots in the Sindhu River, thereby mingling the river water with other waters of the land. The Sindhu Cultural Centre was inaugurated a few years back as well as the new office complex of Ladakh Autonomous Hill Development Council.

This complex will be helpful in bringing out the unique culture of the Ladakh region and its people.The facilities proposed at the complex include an auditorium for seating 500 people, an open-air theatre, an exhibition gallery, a music room, a small library and a souvenir shop where Ladakh handicrafts could be available to visiting tourists.The Sindhu Darshan Festival aims at projecting the Sindhu as a symbol of multi-dimensional cultural identity, communal harmony and peaceful co-existence in India. Whilst promoting tourism to this area, this festival is also a symbolic salute to the brave soldiers of India who have bravely fought the odds at Siachin, Kargil & other places. The Sindhu Darshan Festival will help forge a bond of unity with those who live in far-flung corners of the country and provide an opportunity to visit the beautiful region of Ladakh. As a National Integration Program, the festival was welcomed by the Ladakh Buddhist Association, Shia Majilis, Sunni Anjumam, Christian Moravian Church, Hindu Trust and Sikh Gurudwara Prabandhak Committee. The three day programme will be inaugurated on June 1, 2001 at Shey is being organized by the Government of Jammu and of Kashmir with the support of Ministry of Tourism and Culture, Govt. of India. The festival promises a kaleidoscope of Indian culture and an exciting array of performing arts being brought together at an exciting place. Indian Airlines is expected to operate special flights for the festival.The Sindhu Darshan Festival is organised annually at Leh. The first time when this Festival was organised in October 1997, over seventy people from all over India had travelled to Leh for a Darshan and Puja of the River Sindhu (Indus) which originates from the Mansarovar in Tibet.

JULY- AUGUST

Teej Festivals,Rajasthan/Delhi

This swing festival welcomes the advent of the monsoon. Swings are hung from trees and decorated with flowers. Women, colourfully attired, swing on them and sing songs in celebration.
With every drop of first rains; Peacocks dance in ecstasy, spirits soar high in celebration. Song & dance mark the gaiety of the Teej Festival. Teej is held on Third day of the moonlight fortnight of the Hindu Month of Shravan (Mid-July to Mid-August) and marks the advent of the monsoons. The monsoon rains fall on the parched land and the pleasing scent of the wet soil rises into the air. The monsoon rains fall on the parched land and the pleasing scent of the wet soil rises into the air.

Teej is the festival for the daughters of the house. This festival is dedicated to the Goddess Parvati, commemorating her union with Lord Shiva. The festival is also dedicated to Goddess Parvati and commemorates the day when she was united with Lord Shiva after a penance of a hundred years – making them a symbol of an ideal marriage. It is believed that invocation of Parvati’s blessings on this day results in continued marital bliss.

Type of Teej

In the state of Rajasthan three kinds of Teej are celebrated and worshiped by the local public in the region. Broadly,

On Haryali Teej: The moon is prayed to.
On Kajari Teej: women gather to sing songs and a pooja of neem is performed.
On Hartalika Teej: Fast for 3 days without any water on the second day.

This festival is more famous amongst the people of Rajasthan and thus the celebration of Teej remains exclusive to the Jaipur region. Teej holds a special place in the heart of the people of Jaipur as a time for rejuvenation and revival of spirits after the punishing summers. The festival is made into an even more memorable experience if it rains on this day.

LEGEND

The legend behind the celebrations is Goddess Parvati’s hard-core Tapasya, before her union with Lord Shiva, for which she took 108 births on the Earth. The Myth goes that she failed to have Lord Shiva as her Life Partner till 107th Birth. But this divine union happened, when she again took birth for 108th time.

RITUALS

Seekers of conjugal bliss and happiness worship goddess Parvati. An elaborate procession is taken out in Jaipur for two consecutive days on the festive occasion, which is watched by people in large numbers.

Teej is especially celebrated in Jaipur, the capital city of Rajasthan. However, people of Bihar and parts of Uttar Pradesh also consider this festival an auspicious one. Though the revelry and public participation is absent here, Lord Shiva and his wife Parvati are worshipped by married women who keep a 24-hour fast for the long life of their husband. The fast is a strict one during which the women are not allowed to have even a sip of water. An offering of traditional sweets and fruits is made and women pray for the long life and prosperity of their husband.

Women undergo fasts; sing folk songs and dance in the name of Goddess Parvati. It is a belief that unmarried women fasting will luckily find a suitable husband. Fasting married women will also find their husband more faithful and bonds of love strengthened.

The images of Parvati or Teej Mata are bedecked in new clothes and jewellery and worshipped. The Teej idol is covered with a canopy whereas the Gangaur idol is open. After a ceremonial worship at home, elephants are taken out in a ceremonial process escorted by camels, and horses. Then the images are taken out in ceremonial processions escorted by caparisoned elephants, camels and horse drawn chariots, as the bride Parvati leaves her parents home for her husband's. The festivity revolves around singing and dancing in praise of Parvati. The devotees surges to catch a glimpse of the deity and seek blessings.

CELEBRATIONS

On the occasion of Teej, Dandia dances are arranged by professionals and performed in courtyards at home and in public places.

The young girls of the house who dress up in colourful saris, lehangas and chunris, also perform these dances.

The colourful dandas (sticks) moving in rhythmic beats, with each swing of the hands and feet, hitting either at one's own danda held in the other hand, or at the one held by the other dancers, are really beautiful to watch.

Girls with Henna on their hands and feet run about joyously and are excused from household chores on this day. Special Mehndi motifs also called laheria and ghewar are applied to match the mood of Teej.

On Teej, it is a must for the girls to receive clothes from their parents. Gifts comprising of set of heavy clothes, eatables, dry fruits, bangles, which is called as baya, for the first year after marriage is given to the newly weds. Girls engaged to be married, receive gifts from their future in-laws a day before the festival. The gift, called Shrinjhara derived from the word shringar (adornment), consists of henna, lac bangles, a special dress of laheria (tie and dye fabric) and a sweet called ghewar.

The pooja is performed in the morning. The baya which consists of a variety of foodstuff is placed on a thaali (plate) at the place of worship where a chowk (square) has been decorated, an idol or a picture of Parvati is installed. The evenings are set aside for singing and dancing.
Swings are hung from trees and decorated with flowers. Young girls and women colourfully attired, swing on them and sing songs in praise of the goddess and the monsoon. The gracefully ornamented and colourfully dressed women celebrate the day adding fun and frolic to it through their local gatherings. The hands crafted with Henna add into the beauty of the ladies and a popular belief that goes with it is that the darker the Henna the more a man loves his woman.
The colours of the month of Sawan, lilting songs - specific to the festival, are sung to accompany the application of henna, creating an aura of romance. This atmosphere of Teej is celebrated with the fullest of life to make it the most memorable day of the year and for the reason it is the much awaited festival amongst the girls of India.

The tie-and-dye chunri in green, red, and yellow with its zari and gota along with green, yellow and red bangles, becomes a feast for the eyes.

The rituals allow one to pamper and enjoy themselves, to fast and feast, to dress the best with best of cloths, finery and jewellery. The festivities end with exchange of gifts and the arrivals of husbands to fetch their wives. The wives then leave then leave their parent’s home like Parvati.

AUGUST-SEPTEMBER

Rath Yatra

This chariot procession on the main streets of Ahmedabad city features a lot of colourful chariots, trucks and other vehicles.

The procession commemorates the journey of lord Krishna to Mathura, leaving behind grieving Gopis. The massive procession begins at Jagdish temple in Jamalpur. The main chariots are dedicated to lord Krishna, his brother Balaram and sister Subadhra, followed by colourfully decorated elephants, trucks, motor vehicles, pilgrims on foot, acrobats and gymnasts.

Besides Ahmedabad, it is worth visiting Dakore for the large Rath yatra fair.

Ganesh festival in maharashtra

Ganesh Chaturthi - the fourth day of Bhadrapad month is a specific day for Ganesh. It is very emphatically asserted by Dnyaneshwar in Maharashtra, where the importance and spread of Ganesh worship in the of Bhadrapad Mahina (August – September ) is the greatest, the bright fourth of lunar .

Origin of ganesh utsavo

It so happened that one sardar of Peshwa named Nanasaheb Khajgiwale in 1892 visited the palace of Gwalior, where he came across Ganesh Utsav. People from all walks of life participated in this utsav. Seeing this, Nanasaheb got delighted and decided to start the same kind of festival at Pune, the capital of Peshwa. Accordingly, in 1896 Shri Khajgiwale, Shri Ghotawadekar and Shri Bhau Rangari arranged a Sarvajanik PublicGanesh Utsav and in the same year, Ganesh immersion ritual was also started.

In the next year i.e. 1897, the number of Ganesh mandals increased alarmingly, and the question of whose Ganpati will be the first in cavalcade was hotly debated. At this crucial time, Shri Lokmanya Tilak and Shri Annasaheb Patwardhan were called to resolve the issue. They gave first preference to Jijamata Prasthapit Kasaba Ganapati Ganesh Utsav mandal. Thereafter, people started celebrating Ganesh Utsav on a large scale.

Ganesh festival in mumbai

Ganesh Chaturthi - the fourth day of Bhadrapad month is a specific day for Ganesh. It is very emphatically asserted by Dnyaneshwar in Maharashtra, where the importance and spread of Ganesh worship in the of Bhadrapad Mahina (August – September ) is the greatest, the bright fourth of lunar Keshavji Naik Chawl (Girgaon) was the pioneer in starting the Ganesh Utsav in Mumbai with the figure being around 2500 at present thereby signifying the ever increasing popularity of this festival. It is celebrated with great fervor and pomp in old Mumbai- Southern region and Central region.

Each mandal has it’s own way of celebrating the festival. Some of them lay emphasis on performing pooja while some lay emphasis on carrying out social activities like blood donation camps, free medical checkups, scholarships to poor and bright students and so on.

The immersion of the worshipped image takes place not earlier than the afternoon of the second day all over Maharashtra. The immersion period could be a day and a half or five or a higher number of odd days later untill the last day of bright fourteenth, which is known as Anant Chaturdashi.

The size of the Ganesh idols ranges from 3/4th of an inch to over 25 feet. The shape of the idols also varies depending upon which form the mandals want to depict. There is no evidence in case of region other than Maharashtra that the installed idol was kept or could be kept for longer period. The disposal of worshiped idol is to be made preferably in the sea or running stream or may be made in pond or well, which must be other than one’s own.

Ganesh Chaturthi

Ganesh or Vinayaka Chaturthi is dedicated to Lord Ganesh (son of Shiva), the elephant -headed god of all good beginnings and success. The festival celebrated as the birth day of Lord Ganesha, held annually in South India especially with great fervor in Maharashtra, is a ten day long event.

On the occasion of the Ganapati festival, a large number of idols are made of clay or metal in all possible sizes sometimes even up to twenty feet.

People buy them and install them in their houses and worship the idol for one to ten days, after which the idol are taken out ceremoniously, carried in a procession through the streets of the town (especially in Maharashtra) and immersed into the river, sea or well. The sea front at Mumbai, packed with people, is a spectacular sight.A cultural feast is held to coincide with Ganesh Chaturthi in Maharashtra especially at Pune. Classical dance, music performances, poetry recitations, folk dances, theatre and film festival are the main features of this festival.On the 4th day of the bright half of Bhadrapad, the great festival of Ganesh or Ganpati is celebrated. This festival marked the birthday of Lord Ganesh. Ganpati is one of the most popular deities. Both Shaivites and Vaishnavites worship him. Even Buddhists and Jains have respect for Ganpati. He is considered to be an avatar of both Shiva and Vishnu.

To appreciate this occasion, one must go to Mumbai where preparations begin months in advance. Images of Ganesha are installed within homes as well as in places of assembly. Elaborate arrangements are made for lighting and decoration and Ganesha is fervently worshipped for about 7-10 days.On the day of the Chaturthi, the last of the days dedicated to the elephant-headed god, thousands of processions converge on the beaches of Mumbai to immerse the holy idols in the sea. This immersion is accompanied by drumbeats, devotional songs and dancing. Every year, the largest Ganesh idol is installed at Khairatabad in Hyderabad, which is more than 30 ft tall.The Ganapati Mahotsav or the Grand Festival of Ganesha is the principle festival in Bombay, the financial capital of India. In Bombay factories commission the largest of the 6000 or so Ganeshas collectively.

Each of these idols can be upto 10 metres in height and are paraded on lorries decorated with multi-coloured lights. At the other end of the scale, little Ganeshas are placed in nukkads or street corners and in homes, and pujas are performed daily. The festival was started by Shivaji , the great Maratha ruler, to promote culture and a feeling of nationalism amongst his subjects who were fighting against the Mughals.After his death the festival was celebrated but on a smaller scale. In 1894 when the British banned public assemblies Lokmanya Bal Gangadhar Tilak who felt that this was way of spreading the freedom message through a legitimate religious festival revived the festival.

On full moon day every idol is taken down to the Chowpatty beach accompanied by hordes of people singing and dancing and is immersed in the Arabian Sea.

Ganpati is the god of learning. He is addressed as the "Remover of Obstacles" ("Vignaharta"). His devotees believe that no enterprise will succeed unless he is invoked. The picture of Ganpati is often found on the doors of houses and printed on wedding cards. On the occasion of the Ganpati festival a large number of images are made of all possible sizes, and people buy them to keep in their houses as a divine guest for one and a half, five, seven, or ten days, after which the image is taken out ceremoniously and thrown into the river, sea or well for immersion or "visarjan". When he is immersed in the water, people sing,

"'GANPATI BAPPA MORYA, AGLE BARAS TO JALDI AA," ("father Ganpati, next year come again.")

Parvati's Bath and Shankar's Ire The mythological basis of the celebration is found in the Puranas. One day Parvati was taking bath. She wanted someone to watch outside. She got the idea of making an idol out of the dirt that came from her body. She placed the idol outside. Then her husband Shankar came. The idol dutifully did not allow him to enter. Shankar was furious. In an instant he severed the head of the idol.Parvati finished her bath and came out. She explained to her husband the reason for placing the idol before the door. It was an idol of her own making. In fact the idol was her son ("manas putra"), and consequently also Shankar's son.
Shankar felt sorry for what he had done. His servant Gan was standing nearby. Shankar ordered him to go and bring the head of the first living being he would meet. The servant saw an elephant, and he at once cut his head and took it to Shankar. Shankar joined the elephant's head to the body of Parvati's son. "Gaj' means elephant and "anan" means head, so Parvati's son became known as "Gajanan". Shankar made him the deity of his armies and thus his name became Ganesh ("Gan" = army, "Ish" = god) or Ganpati, which means "The Lord of Hosts".

108 Names of Lord Ganesha and the meanings -

1. Akhurath: One who has mouse as his charioteer
2. Alampata : Ever eternal lord
3. Amit : Incomparable lord
4. Anantachidrupamayam: Infinite and consciousness personified
5. Avaneesh: Lord of the whole world
6. Avighna: Remover of obstacles
7. Balaganapati: Beloved and lovable child
8. Bhalchandra: Moon-crested lord
9. Bheema: Huge and Gigantic
10. Bhupati: Lord of the gods
11. Bhuvanpati: God of the gods
12. Buddhinath: God of wisdom
13. Budhipriya: Knowledge bestower
14. Bhudhividhata: God of knowledge
15. Chaturbhuj: One who has four arms
16. Devadeva: Lord of all lords
17. Devantakanashakarin: Destroyer of evils and asuras
18. Devarata: One who accepts all gods
19. Devendrashika: Protector of all gods
20. Dharmik: One who gives charity
21. Dhoomravarna: Smoke-Hued lord
22. Durja: Invincible lord
23. Dvaimatura: One who has two mothers
24. Ekaakshara: He of the single syllable
25. Ekadanta: Single-Tusked lord
26. Ekadrishta: Single-Tusked lord
27. Eshanputra: Lord Shiva’s son
28. Gadadhara: One who has the mace as his weapon
29. Gajakarna: One who has eyes like an elephant
30. Gajanana: Elephant-Faced lord
31. Gajananeti: Elephant-Faced lord
32. Gajavakra: Trunk of the elephant
33. Gajavaktra: One who has mouth like an elephant
34. Ganadhakshya: Lord of all Ganas (Gods)
35. Ganadhyakshina: Leader of all the celestial bodies
36. Ganapati: Lord of all Ganas (Gods)
37. Gaurisuta: The son of Gauri (Parvati)
38. Gunina: One who is the master of all virtues
39. Haridra: One who is golden colored
40. Heramba: Mother’s Beloved son
41. Kapila: Yellowish-Brown coloured
42. Kaveesha: Master of poets
43. Krti: Lord of music
44. Kripalu: Merciful lord
45. Krishapingaksha: Yellowish-Brown eyed
46. Kshamakaram: The place of forgiveness
47. Kshipra: One who is easy to appease
48. Lambakarna: Large-Eared lords
49. Lambodara: The huge bellied lord
50. Mahabala: Enormously strong lord
51. Mahaganpati: Omnipotent and supreme lord
52. Maheshwaram: Lord of the universe
53. Mangalamurti: All auspicious lord
54. Manomay: Winner of hearts
55. Mrityunjaya: Conqueror of death
56. Mundakarama: Abode of happiness
57. Muktidaya: Bestower of eternal bliss
58. Mushikvahana: One who has mouse as charioteer
59. Nadapratithishta: One who appreciates and loves music
60. Namasthetu: Vanquisher of all evils and vices and sins
61. Nandana: Lord Shiva’s son
62. Nideeshwaram: Giver of wealth and treasures
63. Omkara: One who has the form of OM
64. Pitambara: One who has yellow-colored body
65. Pramoda: Lord of all abodes
66. Prathameshwara: First among all
67. Purush: The omnipotent personality
68. Rakta: One who has red-colored body
69. Rudrapriya: Beloved of lord Shiva
70. Sarvadevatman: Acceptor of all celestial offerings
71. Sarvasiddanta: Bestower of skills and wisdom
72. Sarvatman: Protector of the universe
73. Shambhavi: The son of Parvati
74. Shashivarnam: One who has a moon like complexion
75. Shoorpakarna: Large-eared Lord
76. Shuban: All auspicious lord
77. Shubhagunakanan: One who is the master of all virtues
78. Shweta: One who is as pure as the white colour
79. Siddhidhata: Bestower of success and accomplishments
80. Siddhipriya: Bestower of wishes and boons
81. Siddhivinayak: Bestower of success
82. Skandapurvaja: Elder brother of Skanda (Lord Kartik)
83. Sumukha: Auspicious face
84. Sureshwaram: Lord of all lords
85. Swaroop: Lover of beauty
86. Tarun: Ageless
87. Uddanda: Nemesis of evils and vices
88. Umaputra: The son of goddess Uma (Parvati)
89. Vakratunda: Curved trunk lord
90. Varaganapati: Bestower of boons
91. Varaprada: Granter of wishes and boons
92. Varadavinayaka: Bestower of Success
93. Veeraganapati: Heroic lord
94. Vidyavaridhi: God of wisdom
95. Vighnahara: Remover of obstacles
96. Vignaharta: Demolisher of obstacles
97. Vighnaraja: Lord of all hindrances
98. Vighnarajendra: Lord of all obstacles
99. Vighnavinashanaya: Destroyer of all obstacles and impediments
100. Vigneshwara: Lord of all obstacles
101. Vikat: Huge and gigantic
102. Vinayaka: Lord of all
103. Vishwamukha: Master of the universe
104. Vishwaraja: King of the world
105. Yagnakaya: Acceptor of all sacred and sacrificial offerings
106. Yashaskaram: Bestower of fame and fortune
107. Yashvasin: Beloved and ever popular lord
108. Yogadhipa: The lord of meditation

URS Ajmer Sharif,Ajmer

The urs, acommomerative celebration is held in the solemn memory of Khwaja Muin-nddin Chisti, a prighly respected sufi saint fondly revered as the benefactor of the poor, popularly known as Gareeb Nawaz. The Dargah Sharif in Ajmer, is the place where the Saints mortal remains lie burried and is the site of the largest Muslim Fair in India.Chadar; Ghilaph & Neema which are votive offerings for the tomb are offered by several hundred thousand devotees. Mehfils & Qawwalis are held and mass prayer calls for the eternal peace of the mankind. An interesting ritual is the looting of Kheer (Milk Pudding) which is cooked in two large cauldrons called Degs and distributed to the devotees as tabarruk (blessed food).The lakeside city of Ajmer is located in central Rajasthan, and is held in great reverence by devotees of all communities who call it 'Ajmer Sharif' (Holy Ajmer). It is here that the mortal remains of the highly respected Sufi saint Khwaja Moin-ud-din Chishti lie buried. The Khwaja came from Persia and established the Chishtia order of fakirs in India. He is popularly known as Gharib Nawaz (protector of the poor) because he dedicated his entire life to the service of mankind. His spartan life spanned almost a hundred years and he embraced death in solitude while he had withdrawn to his cell for six days, asking not to be disturbed.The Dargah Sharif in Ajmer is the place where the Saint's mortal remains lie buried and is the site of the largest Muslim fair in India. More than five lakh devotees belonging to different communities gather from all parts of the subcontinent to pay homage to the Khwaja on his Urs (death anniversary) during the first six days of Rajab (seventh month of the Islamic calendar.) The pilgrims who come to seek the blessings of the Khwaja make rich offerings called nazrana at the holy spot where the saint has been entombed. The offerings of rose and jasmine flowers, sandalwood paste, perfumes and incense contribute to the fragrance that floats in the air inside the shrine. Also offered by devotees are the chadar, ghilaph and neema, which are votive offerings for the tomb.These are brought by devotees on their heads and handed over to the khadims inside the sanctum sanctorum. Outside the sanctum sanctorum of the dargah, professional singers called qawwals in groups and sing the praises of the saint in a characteristic high pitched voice. People gather around them and listen attentively, sometimes clapping to the rhythm of their instruments. The Urs is initiated with the hoisting of a white flag on the dargah by the Sajjada Nashin (successor representative) of Chishtis. It is done on the 25th of Jamadi-ul-Akhir (sixth lunar month), with the accompaniment of music. On the last day of the sixth month, the Jannati-Darwaza (gateway of heaven) is flung open early in the morning. People cross this gate seven times with the belief that they will be assured a place in heaven. On the 1st of Rajab, the tomb is washed with rose water and sandalwood paste and anointed with perfumes. This ritual is called ghusal. The tomb is then covered with an embroidered silk cloth by the Sajjada Nashin.An interesting ritual is the looting of kheer (milk-pudding) which is cooked in two large cauldrons called degs and distributed to the devotees as tabarruk (blessed food).On the 6th of Rajab, after the usual mehfil and the sound of cracker-bursts accompanied by music, the Sajjada Nashin performs the ghusal of the tomb.

Fatiha and Salamti are read. A poetic recitation called mushaira is arranged in which poets of all communities arrive to recite compositions dedicated to the Khwaja. The Qul (end-all) on the 6th of Rajab marks the end of the Urs. At night, religious assemblies called mehfils are held in the mehfil-khana, a large hall meant for this purpose. These are presided over by the Sajjada Nashin of the dargah.Qawwalis are sung and the hall is packed to capacity. There are separate places reserved for women who attend the mehfil. The mehfil terminates late in the night with a mass prayer for the eternal peace of the Khwaja in particular and mankind in general. The Dargah is located at the conjunction of three bazaars. There are a number of restaurants around the Dargah where visitors can choose from a variety of dishes most of which are non-vegetarian preparations. Guest houses on the road leading to the Dargah offer accommodation that ranges from economical to luxurious. Many other guest houses are strewn across the city. The shops in the market around the Dargah sell flowers, prayer mats, rosaries, textiles, and general merchandise as well.Ajmer is 132 kms. south-west of Jaipur and 198 kms. east of Jodhpur. It is connected by road to Jaipur, Jodhpur, Bikaner, Udaipur and Kota. Ajmer is a railway junction on the Delhi-Ahmedabad section of the Western Railway. During the Urs, special buses ply from cities all over India carrying people to Ajmer and back.

Chaturthy

This festival is celebrated in the month of avani on chaturthi (4th) day which comes after the new moon. It is celebrated all over India. People celebrate this day in a variety of ways. For anything to go well, we pray Lord Vinayaka. He is the first to be worshipped whenever we start anything. He relieves us from all our difficulties. He solves our problems.

Lord Vinayaka has got an elephant face and human body. He is worshipped by many names like Vinayaka, Ganesha, Pillayar, Vigneshwara, Gajanana, Ganapathy, Mooshika Vahanaa, Modhaga priya etc. He rides on an animal called mooshika(a large kind of rat).

In our houses we celebrate this pooja in a grand manner. We decorate the floor with kolams using rice flour. On that day we buy a new Vinayaka idol(made of clay). We also buy a decorated umbrella to place behind the idol. On a wooden plank, plantain leaf is placed and raw rice is spread over it. We place the idol on this and decorate with flowers and perform pooja.

Vinayaka likes a dish called mothagam(kozhukkattai). So different varieties of kozhukkattai are prepared and offered to the lord on this day. It is the special item on this day.

On the next day, punar pooja is done. This is the pooja which acts as an ending to the festival. After this we remove the idol from its place. On the next day after punar pooja, we immerse the idol in water in the sea, well or pond.

In cities like Mumbai, Chennai etc. large Ganesha idols (a bout 6 ft) are placed in common places and pooja is performed in a very grand manner. People all around worship the lord. Prasadams (Dish offered to the lord) are distributed to the people. After the pooja is over, the idol is taken in a grand procession and immersed in the sea.

For this pooja, different flowers are used. Erukkampoo(calotropis), thumbaipoo(white small flowers and arugampul( a type of grass) is very special for the lord. Different varieties of fruits are also offered.

Raksha Bandhan

Rakhi: The Thread of Love

About Raksha Bandhan

The chaste bond of love between a brother and a sister is one of the deepest and noblest of human emotions. 'Raksha Bandhan' or 'Rakhi' is a special occasion to celebrate this emotional bonding by tying a holy thread around the wrist. This thread, which pulsates with sisterly love and sublime sentiments, is rightly called the ‘Rakhi’. It means 'a bond of protection', and Raksha Bandhan signifies that the strong must protect the weak from all that’s evil.

The ritual is observed on the full moon day of the Hindu month of Shravan, on which sisters tie the sacred Rakhi string on their brothers' right wrists, and pray for their long life. Rakhis are ideally made of silk with gold and silver threads, beautifully crafted embroidered sequins, and studded with semi precious stones.

The Social Binding

This ritual not only strengthens the bond of love between brothers and sisters, but also transcends the confines of the family. When a Rakhi is tied on the wrists of close friends and neighbors, it underscores the need for a harmonious social life, where every individual co-exist peacefully as brothers and sisters. All members of the community commit to protect each other and the society in such congregational Rakhi Utsavs, popularized by the Nobel laureate Bengali poet Rabindranath Tagore.

The Friendly Knot

It won’t be wrong to say the fashionable friendship band in vogue today is an extension of the Rakhi custom. When a girl feels a friend of the opposite sex has developed a kind of love too strong for her to reciprocate, she sends the guy a Rakhi and turns the relationship into a sisterly one. This is one way of saying, "let’s just be friends", without hurting the other person's soft feelings for her.

The Auspicious Full Moon

In Northern India, Rakhi Purnima is also called Kajri Purnima or Kajri Navami, when wheat or barley is sown, and goddess Bhagwati is worshipped. In Western states, the festival is called Nariyal Purnima or the Coconut Full Moon. In Southern India, Shravan Purnima is an important religious occasion, especially for the Brahmins.

Raksha Bandhan is known by various names: Vish Tarak - the destroyer of venom, Punya Pradayak - the bestower of boons, and Pap Nashak - the destroyer of sins.

Rakhi in History

The strong bond represented by Rakhi has resulted in innumerable political ties among kingdoms and princely states. The pages of Indian history testify that the Rajput and Maratha queens have sent Rakhis even to Mughal kings who, despite their differences, have assuaged their Rakhi-sisters by offering help and protection at critical moments and honoured the fraternal bond. Even matrimonial alliances have been established between kingdoms through the exchange of Rakhis.

History has it that the great Hindu King Porus refrained from striking Alexander, the Great because the latter’s wife had approached this mighty adversary and tied a Rakhi on his hand, prior to the battle, urging him not to hurt her husband.

Why Rakhi?

Rituals like Rakhi, there is no doubt, help ease out various societal strains, induce fellow-feeling, open up channels of expression, give us an opportunity to rework on our role as human beings and, most importantly, bring joy in our mundane lives.

“May all be happyMay all be free from illsMay all behold only the goodMay none be in distress.”

Janmashtami

Janmashtami, the birth of Lord Krishna is celebrated with great devotion in the August/September months, on the Ashtami of Krishna Paksh or the 8th day of the dark fortnight in the month of Bhadon, in the whole of north India. Temples and homes are beautifully decorated and lit. An attractive feature of the celebrations are cribs & other decorations depicting stories of Lord Krishna's childhood. There are five main "jhankis" of Janmashtami which depict the entire sequence of events from Lord Krishna's birth to his being discovered in Gokul .

The "jhankis" include the birth of Krishna in jail, Vasudev carrying Krishna to safety across the river Yamuna amidst thunder and lightning, Vasudev's return to the jail, Kansa killing Yashoda's daughter and finally the little Krishna in the cradle in Gokul. "Jhankis" are created out of dolls dressed up as kids, men and women with lehangas, chunnis, dhotis & kurtas. Raslila of every type are also performed - Janmlila, Shankarlila, Putnalila and Naglila. In the evening bhajans are sung which end at midnight, the auspicious moment when Lord Krishna was born. Thereafter arti is done, prasad distributed and flowers showered on the idol.

Onam

Onam is the national festival of Kerala. It is celebrated is during the month of August-September. The festival cherishes the memory of the legendary King Mahabali and his prosperous reign during which, perfect communal harmony and prosperity prevailed. It was a glorious period and people were happy. The King Mahabali's popularity was at its height and led to the envy of the Gods. This golden age ended when Vamana, the dwarf incarnation of Vishnu expelled him from his throne to the neitherlands. But Mahabali was allowed to visit his dear subjects once in a year.

He visits his dear Kingdom during the first Malayalam month of Chingam an occasion that fills the whole state with joy and merriment.Onam is also the harvest season. Nature is divinely beautiful and Kerala becomes lush green with the spring season. Flowers bloom in plenty and butterflies bring a rainbow of colour. The people decorating their houses with `Onapookalam´ or floral arrangements on floor to welcome Mahabali. A grand lunch with 21 curries and three types of sweet porridges or `payasam´ are prepared and enjoyed with fervour. Songs in praise of Mahabali and his golden reign are sung along with kaikottikali – danced by maidens in the household. Onam is is celebrated in ten day long festivities.Atham is the first day of celebrations and Thiruvonam is the grand finale. Uthradom, the day before Thiruvonam, is a day of great significance. From Atham to Thiruvonam, on all days, people make floral decoration in the front yard or verandah of their houses. The idol of Thrikkakara Appan (synonym of Mahabali) made of clay is placed in the middle of the floral decoration with utmost reverence and devotion.On Thiruvonam day special pujas are offered in temples early in the morning after which elder members of family will give presents to the younger members. All people of Kerala without exceptions celebrate Onam. The season is celebrated in the state with tourist festivals. The state Tourism organisations conduct various cultural events, shows, exhibitions, boat races, community feasts etc during this season. Onam is one of the oldest existing festivals of India.

The Harvest Festival

Onam, the harvest festival is the most popular festival of Kerala. A festival that celebrates a happy blend of myth and reality, Onam is part of the cultural repertoire of every Malayalee.
It brings back nostalgic memories, carried on the wings of folklore, of a bygone Utopian era of prosperity, equality and righteousness, under the golden reign of Mahabali. Year after year, for centuries, the people of Kerala, irrespective of caste, creed or colour, join together to welcome back their vanquished king.

The ten-day Onam festival falls in August-September, coinciding with the beginning of the harvest season.

The Legend

According to local belief, in a war that took place between the gods and the demons, the demons won. Deeply hurt by the defeat of the gods, Aditi, their mother prayed to Lord Vishnu to destroy Mahabali, the demon king.

Consequently, Lord Vishnu, in the guise of a Brahmin boy, Vamanan, went to Mahabali and asked him to grant him three steps of land. The wish was granted and Vamanan covered the whole land with his two steps and then he came back to the King asking him where can he place the third step.

The king to honour his word, offered his head as the third step. Vamanan pushed Mahabali deep down into the earth. Pleased by his honesty and generosity, the lord in turn granted him a wish that he could he could visit his kingdom and people on a particular day once a year.

The FestivityPreparation of a floral carpet called "Athappookkalam" in front of houses, from the first day of 'Atham' to the tenth day of 'Thiruvonam' is part of the festivities, which is a symbolic gesture to welcome King Mahabali.

The state government conducts Tourism Week celebrations in connection with Onam, showcasing the gems of Kerala's culture. Onam resonates with Carnivals, Boat Races, Dance, Music and Feast.

A sumptious meal on plantain leaf and the traditional sweet dish of Kerala 'Payasam' etc are served in every house The pomp and pageantry of Onam reflects the Keralite's zest for all the beautiful things of life.

Rituals

Onam is celebrated throughout Kerala; singing and merry making is its hallmark. Onam depicts the story of Mahabali the king who rules the country during a time of prosperity. He still visits Kerala annually to bless the people. The women dress up and decorate the entrance to their homes to welcome Mahabali. The whole state comes alive with festivity and activity. A time for prayers and ceremonies, a time to celebrate and rejoice, a time for fun and sports. A time for the snake boat festival.

ONAM AND SOUTH INDIA

Onam being celebrated in Tirupati also confirms the fact that Onam was popular in the southern region before becoming confined to Kerala after the 10th century AD.

Mangudy Marudanar, one of the noted poets of the Sangam Age, is said to have Commemoration Of A Glorious Past described the Onam celebrations in the Pandyan capital of Madurai in one of his poems. Onam has been around for a long time. Apparently it used to be celebrated during the Sangam period in the first few centuaries C.E. Onam festivities have been recorded during the time Kulasekhara Perumals (800 C.E.). Those were the days when Onam used to be a full month long

SEPTEMBER-OCTOBER

Durga Puja, West Bengal :

Durga Puja in Bengal, Dassera and Navratri in other parts of India, celebrate the universal resurgence of the power of creation over destruction. It is the most popular festival in Bengal, celebrating the victory of Ma Durga over the buffalo demon and of good over evil. The festivities stretch over a period of ten days. The traditional image of the Bengali Durga follows the iconographic injunction of the Shastras. The tableau of Durga with her four children – Kartik, Ganesh, Saraswati and Lakshmi, representing respectively the Protector, the Initiator of the Puja, Knowledge and the provider – signifies the complete manifestation of the goddess.

The first recorded Durga Puja seems to have been celebrated by Bhabananda, the ancestor of Maharaja Krishnachandra of Nadia, in or about 1606. The family puja of the Sabarna Chouduris of Barisha dates back to 1610 – the oldest in Calcutta, and conducted even today in a highly traditional style.

Durga puja broke free from the pillared cortiles at Guptipara in Hugli District when twelve angry young men were stopped from taking part in a household puja. They formed a twelve-man committee, which held the first public or community Durga Puja by subscription. Hence such pujas came to be called baroari (baro – twelve yar – friend).

Navratri,Gujarat

Navratri, meaning 'nine nights', is an ancient and colourful festival. It honours the one Divine Shakti or Force which supports the entire universe, and is personified as the Mother Goddess. She protects her worshippers, destroys evil and grants boons to her children. The Mother Goddess has seven well - known forms, depending upon the special powers she manifests. Throughout Gujarat, Navratri is celebrated with joy and religious fevour.

This festival is essentially religious in nature. It is celebrated with true devotion in the various temples dedicated to the Mother, or Mataji, as she is familiarly called. In some homes, images of the Mother are worshipped in accordance with accepted practice. This is also true of the temples which usually have a constant stream of visitors from morning to night.

Another interesting feature of Navratri is the garba. a circular dance performed by women around an earthenware pot called a garbo , filled with water. A betel nut and a silver coin are placed within the pot, called a kumbh, on top of which a coconut has also been placed. As the dancers whirl around the pot, a singer and a drummer provide the musical accompaniment. The participants clap in a steady rhythm. Nowadays, loudspeakers are used to enhance the sound which grows to a crescendo. The dance usually starts slowly. It gets faster and faster as the music too gets more rapid, until the dance abruptly comes to a halt. There is a pause for a while and the dance commences once again, the singer leading with a new song.

Another dance which is also a feature of Navaratri is the dandia-ras or 'stick' dance, in which men and women join the dance circle, holding small polished sticks or dandias. As they whirl to the intoxicating rhythm of the dance, men and women strike the dandias together, adding to the joyous atmosphere. So popular are the garba and the dandia-ras that competitions are held to assess the quality of the dancing. Prizes are given to those judged to be the best. The costumes worn for the dances are traditional and alive with colour. The dances usually commence late in the night and continue until early morning, testifying to their great popularity.

OCTOBER-NOVEMBER

Kullu-Dussehra Festival,Himachal Pradesh

Kullu Valley, Himachal Pradesh. The annual mela or festival takes place in the Kullu Valley - also known as the Valley of the Living Gods, in North India. The festival celebrates the triumph of the God Ram over evil. The Rath Yatra of the idol of Lord Ragunath is led by the Kullu Raja and village deities, and is known as the running of the Gods. The procession starts a week of religious ceremonies, cultural activities, socializing and shopping at the huge bazaar, or market, that comprises most of the mela ground.Dussehra at Kullu commences on the tenth day of the rising moon, i.e. on 'Vijay Dashmi' day itself and continues in seven days. The birth of Dussehra in Kullu lay in royal fads and it nourished on religious, social and economic factors and ultimately came to be well established, because of the inborn love of the hill-men for fun, frolic, displayed in community singing and dancing. Numerous stalls offer a verity of local wares. This is also the time when the International Folk Festival is celebrated

A feast of Rhythm and Harmony :

On the first day the idol of Lord Raghunathji saddle on a gaily attired chariot and attended by village gods mounted in colourful planquins, is pulled from its fixed place in Dhalpur Maidan to another spot across the Maidan by Big ropes. The pulling of ropes is regarded sacred by the local people. This forms a huge procession. All the gods of the valley has to visit Kullu on Dussehra in order to pay homage to Raghunathji.

On the following days in the mornings and in the evenings the gods are invoked and paraded. The people remain busy buying, selling, singing and dancing during all the seven days of the festival, which concluded with the burning of the Lanka.

The chariot of Raghunathji is taken near the banks of Beas on the last day of the festival where a pile of wood grass is set on fire, which symbolises the burning of Lanka and is followed by the sacrifice of chosen animals.

The birth of Dussehra in Kullu lay in royal fads and it nourished on religious, social and economic factors and ultimately came to be well established, because of the inborn love of the hill-men for fun, frolic, displayed in community singing and dancing. Numerous stalls offer a verity of local wares. This is also the time when the International Folk Festival is celebrated .

Dussehra

On Dussehra Sri Ram killed the great demon Ravana, who had abducted Sri Ram's wife Sita to his kingdom of Lanka. Sri Ram was a great believer in the powers of Goddesss Durga, and He prayed to Her for nine days before He Himself entered the battlefield on the 10th day.
It is believed that Ravan had 10 faces. They are probably symbolic of the 10 evil facets of his character.

The word Dussehra comes from the word 'Dus' meaning 'Ten' and 'Hara', meaning 'annihilated'. So Dussehra is the day in which the 10 facets of Evil were destroyed.

One must not forget that Ravana was a great scholar and a tremendous worshipper of Lord Shiva. His weakness 'that of wanting to possess Sita' destroyed him. But you will be surprised to learn that His enmity and therefore obsession with Sri Ram fetched him Liberation. Hindu Scriptures claim that you may think of the Lord in whichever way you please, you may pray to Him, complain to Him, talk to Him, Fight with Him...Your obsession with Him will make you a candidate for a Release from the Wheel of Life and Death. It is clearly mentioned in the Scriptures that Sri Ram Himself could not wound Ravana while the latter had his mind fixed on Sri Ram. Ravana's destruction came in, the moment that his concentration was distracted.

On Dussehra day, people worship weapons. Mother Goddess has been worshipped during the preceeding Navratras and She is the Epitome of 'Fight against Evil'. Also, I believe that one worships weapons, to remember to use them in a wise manner.

On Dussehra day, it is customary to exchange leaves of the Apta tree. There is a story connected with the above custom.

Sri Ram’s ancestor relative’s name was king Raghu. He was very generous. After a great ‘Yagna’ (Prayer) the king had distributed all his wealth among the poor.

Raghu had nothing left to give a poor boy, who came to his door step asking for alms. Raghu attacked Kuber, the God of Wealth. As gold rained on earth, some of it fell on the Apta tree. Therefore, since then people exchange leaves of the Apta tree on Dussehra day.

In Bengal the occassion is celebrated as the day on which Durga Ma killed the terrible demon Mahishasur.

The essence is the same--the festival is celebrated all over India as a symbol of victory over evil.
Shall we also destroy our 10 faces of Hypocrisy and deceit, triumph over our negative tendencies and march forward in our flower bedecked cars towards Eternal Victory?
In Kulu Manali Dussehra is celebrated three days after the rest of the country does.

The reason: During ancient times the lesser powerful kings had to attend the celebration held at Maharaja Ranjit Singh's palace in Lahore. It used to take 3 days for the kings to return to their own kingdom to make merry during Dussehra .

Hampi Dance Festival,Karnataka

The magnificent ruined city of Hampi, Karnataka once the capital of the Vijayanagar Empire (One of the greatest empires in the history of India), comes alive during the lively festival of dance and music, held in the first week of November.Hampi holds many delightful surprises. The most famous is the King's Balance where kings were weighed against gold or money, which was then distributed to the poor.

Also worth a visit are the Queen's Bath with its arched corridors, projecting balconies and lotus shaped fountains, the two storeyed Lotus Mahal, the huge Elephant Stables, the splendid Vitthal Temple with its musical pillars and the Stone Chariot, the Virupaksha Temple, Ugra Narasimha, the 6.7 meters tall monolith, the Pushkarini Tank, the Mahanavami Dibba, etc. Virupaksha temple is still in use.Vishu is one of the most popular festivals of Kerala. Vishu falls on the first of Medam (March-April), which is the Malayalam New Year's Day. Since it is considered propitious to view good things on this day for year round good fortune, Vishu morning is an important time. The heart of this festival of Kerala is the preparation of the kani (the lucky sight or gift).

Organized by the Government of Karnataka, the Hampi festival includes Dance, drama, music, fireworks; puppet shows and spectacular processions, all combine to recreate the grandeur of the bygone era.The magnificent ruined city of Hampi, 353 kilometres from Bangalore, Karnataka once the capital of the Vijayanagar Empire (One of the greatest empires in the history of India), comes alive during the lively festival of dance and music, held in the first week of November.

The Vijaynagar city ruins near the village of Hampi are one of the most fascinating historical sites in South India. It has ruins of stone temples, elephant stables, barracks and palaces. Temples of this city are noted for their large dimensions, florid ornamentation, bold and delicate carvings, stately pillars, and magnificent pavilions. Most of the site is early 16th century, built during the 20-year reign of the great Vijayanagar ruler, Krishna Deva Raya (1509 -1529). Hampi holds many delightful surprises. The most famous is the King's Balance where kings were weighed against gold or money which was then distributed to the poor. Also worth a visit are the Queen's Bath with its arched corridors, projecting balconies and lotus shaped fountains, the two storied Lotus Mahal, the huge Elephant Stables, the splendid Vitthal Temple with its musical pillars and the Stone Chariot, the Virupaksha Temple, Ugra Narasimha, the 6.7 meters tall monolith, the Pushkarini Tank, the Mahanavami Dibba, etc. Virupaksha temple is still in use. Organized by the Government of Karnataka, the Hampi festival includes Dance, drama, music, fireworks, puppet shows, spectacular processions, all combine to recreate the grandeur of the bygone era.

NOVEMBER-DECEMBER

Sonpur Cattle Fair, Bihar

According to the 1913 Bihar and Orissa Pilgrim Committee, a fair has been described as the following.

A "fair" is a place where pilgrims congregate in numbers on one or more occasions only during the year: frequently the attractions are secular as well as religious and only in rare instances do people come in numbers from long distances. Such places are, as a rule, but sparsely populated throughout the rest of the year, the only permanent residents being a few faqirs or the people of a small village.

Melas or fairs in Bihar are a common sight. The big fairs in Bihar include the melas of Rajgir near Patna, mela in Patna city, the melas in Jahanabad, in Gaya, Buxar and Sasaram in Shahabad, Revelganj in Saran, Bettiah in Champaran, Sitamarhi, Darbhanga and of course the Sonepur mela. The sonepur mela is the most famous and the oldest not only in Bihar but probably the whole of Asia.

It was here at Sonepur in 1888, the first meeting of the “Indian Association of Cow Protection” seminar took place. It was here at the Sonepur mela (mela in Hindi) that the freedom fighter Veer Kunwar Singh took the occasion of the assembly to actively recruit and inspire the people for fighting against the British imperialism both before and during the First Indian was of Independence in 1857. The cover of Sonepur mela led to the main launch of the struggle movement against the British in Bihar. The Provincial Congress Committee of Bihar and the Bihar Kisan Sabha (Farmers union) also used this mela and the gathering as a recruitment ground. That is why Sonepur mela was considered a political hotbed during the colonial rule by the British and kept a watchful eye.

Sonepur fair in Bihar, India has its origins during ancient times. This is where Chandragupta Maurya used to buy elephants and horses across the river Ganges from Patliputra (Patna of ancient times). Now Sonepur mela is one of the biggest and the world’s greatest fair. It takes place annually, 35 kilometres from Patna, the capital of Bihar. Sonepur mela is held for 21 days in the month of November (from around 5-6th) at the junction of the rivers, Ganga and Gandak. It even has a legendary tale attached to it. Many believe that a struggle took place at this spot in Sonepur between the ruler of Gandharva, Huhu and Indraya muni; ultimately Lord Vishnu helping the weaker latter. That is why there is a vast gathering of devotees gathered at the confluence for the two holy rivers for the blessed dip at the adjacent “Harihar Nath temple” on the full moon day (Kartik Purnima). Many believe that Lord Ram established the temple on his way to Lanka. The locals regard that a dip here at this confluence of the 2 rivers is equivalent to giving away of 100 cows. However, it now attracts people from all geographical and religious diversity from the Punjab and Kashmir to Bhutan and Kerala. During the British Raj, merchants from Afghanistan and Britain used to attend.

Sonepur mela is the Asia’s and probably one of the worlds largest cattle fair. No other mela in Bihar can boast about the crowds it attracts whether it’s Diwali, Chhath, Sivaratri, Ramnavami, Kartik Purnima, Janmashthami, Holi or Durga puja.

Nearly all animals brought here for sale include all breeds of dogs to camels to buffaloes, donkeys, ponies, monkeys, chimps, Persian horses, sheep, rabbits, bears, cats, and guinea pigs. All varieties of birds, poultry and fishes are also available. The Sonepur mela specialises in the sale of every type of bird and animal, big or small.This is only place in the world that sells elephants in large numbers. Handicrafts, paintings and pottery not only from famous Madhubani but all over India can be seen here. All varieties of horticulture can be admired; this is a particular feast for the people of Bihar as it’s a major opportunity to enhance their gardens. Temporary shops selling household goods, local and branded clothing and commercial merchandise are also up for sale. At the Sonepure mela one can buy almost anything. Not to forget the food lovers, it’s absolutely divine. In recent years, government and several companies have started installing their shops to promote their products and services.

It even runs health camps for the wellbeing of animals specially elephants. Animal farmers, circus entertainers, traders and individuals come for a bargain. Some come for the sheer entertainment and a family day out that it provides.

Getting to Sonepur mela:

Air: Take a flight to Patna airport and book in a hotel. Some good hotels include;

Rail: Alternatively get to Patna Station

Kala ghoda fair mumbai

ONE NIGHT SUCCESSIVE SUNDAY Every Sunday From November to February

Exhibiting The World Of Arts

The Kala Ghoda Fair is a celebration of arts and crafts held on every Sunday from November to January. This fair is held in Mumbai near the Jehangir Art Gallery.

Kala Ghoda, the much touted art district of the city, brings together the works of artistes in the fields of music, dance, theatre, film, and of course art offering an interactive cultural mélange for Mumbaites.

The Kala Ghoda Association was established in 1988, with the aim of improving the existing infrastructure of the area, and giving it a distinct identity as Mumbai's art district. The Kala Ghoda fair also hopes to be a catalyst for the revival of art across Mumbai.

Activity At Mumbai's Art District

The area is transformed into a pedestrian plaza where one can treat himself to a rare experience. Walk past aesthetically designed kiosks, take an eyeful of portrait painters recreating one's image artistically, watch a master potter breathe life into clay, set one's palms aglow with traditional mehendi or adorn your arms with exotic bangles made specially for you.

Hear the history of the various art forms passed down through generations from the master craftsmen, who are only too willing and enthusiastic to narrate. Browse through book shops and music shops, watch a parrot unfold your future, hold your breath for the tightrope walker, get enchanted by the magician, see the puppeteer pulling strings or just pause beneath the leafy boughs of a banyan tree, and let the atmosphere seep in.

One can treat oneself to the varied cuisine that Maharashtra offers, savor a traditional Parsi breakfast or walk into the famous Max Mueller Bhavan and feast one's senses on a collection of award winning Indian films.

As the sun begins to inch towards the Arabian sea, and shadows lengthen into the cool evenings, get ready for a heady mix of folk dancers, musicians and singers. The venues for the activities are the National Gallery of Modern Art (NGMA), the David Sasson Library Garden, the Jehangir Art Gallery, among others within the area. The sights, sounds, rhythm, beat and love of rural India take centre-stage. The lights twinkle on every branch and it's time to head for home.

Diwali,

Diwali is a five day Hindu festival which occurs on the fifteenth day of Kartika. Diwali means "rows of lighted lamps" and the celebration is often referred to as the Festival of Lights. During this time, homes are thoroughly cleaned and windows are opened to welcome Laksmi, goddess of wealth. Candles and lamps are lit as a greeting to Laksmi. Gifts are exchanged and festive meals are prepared during Diwali. The celebration means as much to Hindus as Christmas does to Christians.

Because there are many regions in India, there are many manifestations of the Diwali festival. In at least one area, the festival begins with Dhanteras, a day set aside to worship Laksmi. In the Indian culture, wealth is not viewed as a corruptive power. Instead, a wealthy person is considered to have been rewarded for good deeds of a past life.

On the second day Kali, the goddess of Strength, is worshipped. This day also focuses on abolishing laziness and evil.

On the third day (the last day of the year in the lunar calendar), lamps are lighted and shine brightly in every home. The lamp symbolizes knowledge and encourages reflection upon the purpose of each day in the festival. The goal is to remember the purpose throughout the year.
The fourth day of Diwali falls on the first day of the lunar New Year. At this time, old business accounts are settled and new books are opened. The books are worshipped in a special ceremony and participants are encouraged to remove anger, hate, and jealousy from their lives.
On the final day (Balipratipada) of the festival, Bali, an ancient Indian king, is recalled. Bali destroyed the centuries old philosophies of the society. However, in addition to this, he is remembered for being a generous person. Thus, the focus of this day is to see the good in others, including enemies.

Because there is no one universally accepted Hindu calendar, this holiday may be celebrated on a different date in some parts of India, but it always falls in the months of October or November.
Pushikar fair,

Pushkar is a delightful little lakeside village, only 11 km from Ajmer, bordered by the Nag Pahar or the Snake Mountain, and the edge of the Thar Desert.At the Full Moon of Kartik Poornima each year, almost 200,000 people flock to Pushkar, bringing with them 50,000 heads of cattle, for several days of pilgrimage,camel racing and colourful festivities.The Government of Rajasthan has been promoting this Fair as an internationalattraction by adding colourful folk dances,the music of the itinerant "BHIL" and "LANGA" minstrels and other cultural events and by putting up a large tent city,complete with all modern amenities for foreign visitors.Over the years,the Pushkar Fair has become a big draw internationally.

Qutub Festival,Delhi

Located at the Southern part of the city of Delhi, Qutab Minar is a five storey tower made of red sandstone. It is wide near the base but tapers towards the top. The hallmark of Qutab Minar is that it is the tallest free-standing stone tower in the world. With an imposing height of 76.2 m, it is indeed an awe-inspiring piece of architecture. The tower was the brain-child of Afghan invader Qutub-ud-din-Aibak and he built the foundation of the monument. From then onward, the monument has been witness to many an event in the history of India and it also has documented in its own unique way, changes of historical importance.

Today all out effort is being made to salvage this historical monument from the ravages of history. During the month of November-December a 3-day festival is organized on the premises of Qutab Minar. The festival is meant to highlight the magnificent monument. Showcasing the finest cultural art forms in the country, the festival brings this historical monument at the forefront of national and international importance. World famous artists perform at this beautiful festival and people from all over the world come here to enjoy it.

The festival is not only an attempt to restore the heritage monument, it also helps in the preservation of classical Indian art and tradition. Some of the greatest performers in India perform here every year. The festival is surely going to be an experience that you will not forget in a hurry.

Ananya,Delhi

Set amidst the historical background of the Qutub Minar, a number of cultural events are held as a part of the festival. Veterans of India classical music and folk dance give spectacular performances. There are Kuchipudi, Odissi, Manipuri, and various classical dance performances by famous artistes from all over the nation. Sarangi and sitar recitals mesmerize the audience, while ghazals and qawwalis mark the end of the festival. Artistes like the illustrious three generations of the Sarabhai family, Mrinalini, Mallika and Anahita Sarabhai, as well as ghazal maestros Ustaad Ahmad Hussain and Ustaad Mohammad Hussein are amongst the many stalwarts who have made the festival a memorable one. The regional food stalls at the complex add a local flavour to the evening with cuisine from Delhi, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra and The North-Eastern states.

DECEMBER- JANUARY

Hornbill Festival, Nagaland

People everywhere tend to stereotype the inhabitants of other countries when they think of them. It’s not a demeaning or racist practice so much as it is a natural human short cut. When people think of Italy, most of them imagine dark-haired people, forgetting the blond descendants of the Germanic Langobards (“long beards”) that form a substantial part of that country’s northern part.

In China (see this month’s article, “Indigenous China), most people visualize the majority Han Chinese, forgetting that the vast country has scores of non-Han ethnic groups, including Central Asian Caucasian tribesmen.

And so it is with India. Though many of us tend to think of Indians as a homogenous-looking people, their nation of 1 billion is home to dozens of different nations, ethnicities and tribes. This is especially true at the country’s far reaches, such as its eastern state of Nagaland on the Burmese border, a verdant, hilly land that varies from subtropical forests to 12,000-foot mountains.

The state boasts 16 major tribes, all of them as distantly related to India’s dominant Aryans as Japan’s aboriginal Ainu are to the dominant Japanese. In other words, very distant. The names of the tribes are not ones you’ll encounter in a typical recitation of Indian ethnic groups: the Angamis, the Aos, the Chakhesangs, the Konyaks, the Kukis, the Kacharis, the Sumis, the Changs, the Lothas, the Pochurys in October. All the tribes are noted for their penchant for celebrating at the drop of a hat, and Nagaland’s calendar is filled with various tribal fests throughout the year.

Fortunately, India is a land that, despite its occasional outbreaks of inter-ethnic struggle, is incredibly proud of its diversity. In 2000, Nagaland’s government decided to have all of the state’s tribes engage in a common festival. Thus was born the Hornbill Festival, which is celebrated the week of December 1 in the city of Kohima.

Named after the hornbill, a universally respected bird that shows up in the folklore of most of the state’s tribes, the eight-day festival brings them all together in one giant color-splashed hodgepodge of dances, performances, crafts, parades, games, sports, food fairs and religious ceremonies. The festival both exposes tribal people to their “over-the-yonder-hill” counterparts and reinforces Nagaland’s identity as a distinct state in India’s federal union.

While Nagaland is not a mainstream Indian tourist destination, it offers a range of accommodations from spare and simple to deluxe.

Tansen Samaroh,Gwalior

The great classical vocalist, Miyan Tansen, was one of the ‘nine jewels’ in Emperor Akbar’s court. His memorial, in Gwalior, is a classic representation of Mughal architecture. It is also the venue of the annual Indian classical festival held in November. Renowned singers of the land regale audiences with five mesmerising sessions of the much-loved classical ragas. An interesting fact is that performers, before the sessions begin, chew the leaves of a tamarind tree by the tomb. This is believed to make the voice better.

Konark Dance Festival, Orissa

Renowned dancers from all parts of the country assemble here and give fabulous performances.Konark dance festival is celebrated every year at the open air auditorium of the sun temple at Konark. The festival is a three to seven day long occasion which is usually hosted in the month of December. It is during this festivity time that the place draws huge crowds every year. Eminent dancers come from different parts of the country to witness this grand extravaganza and be a part of the festive celebration. On the occasion of Konark dance festival, one gets the opportunity to catch the glimpses of the various dance forms of India. It provides a platform where you get to witness unity in diversity, which is reflected in the varied dance performances taking place in the same parlance. For dance lovers, Konark dance festival is a long awaited occasion. The major dance performances are Odissi, Bharathnatyam, Manipuri, and Kathak. It is one of the most enthralling experiences to see the diverse cultural performances of our country blending with each other. On this grand dance show, craft mela and food mela is also conducted. The food Mela provides you with the specialized delicacies of each region, thereby giving you an insight into the diverse culture of India. The craft Mela displays the fine ethnic craftsmanship of the artists. The venue of the dance festival, i.e. the sun temple at Konark is in itself an architectural marvel. The festivity provides you with the best of all, delicacies, dances, arts and crafts and sightseeing and this is what makes the whole experience of visiting the sun temple during the dance festival fascinating and memorable.

Dhanur masam-Marghazhi

The month Marghazhi (December-January) derives its name from the star Mrigasirsha occurring on or immediately after the month’s Pournami. It is also known as Dhanur masa since during this month the sun transits through Dhanur rasi. Vedas and agamas say mornings in this month are ideal for worship of the Lord. Krishna underlines its special nature by saying in Bhagavad Gita that among months he is Marghazhi. In temples all over India during this month there is special pre-dawn worship. Since this month is set apart for worship, marriages and other such functions are not performed in Marghazhi. The shaivite composition Thiruvembavai and the vaishnavite Thiruppavai are particularly recited during this month.

Christmas

History reveals that Christmas, New Year, etc... all originated in Babylon as festivals celebrated by the Heathen in honour of their Pagan Gods, but were given "christian" meaning by the Catholic Church in order to convert the idol worshippers to Constantine's new "Christian" religion. The Catholic Church simply took these seasonal feasts and festivals celebrated by the heathen and transformed them into 'Christian' celebrations or "Christianized" them in order to make christianity more meaningful to pagan converts.

They came to focus their eyes upon Jesus the infant and Mary His Mother. Many people were coming to the notion that his birthday should be observed. This idea came about as the "Church" began to regard Mary, the mother of Jesus in a new light. She had long been revered along with the saints and Apostles, but only along with them. But in the same fourth century she emerges as the Queen of Heaven. The christmas story of the Birth of Jesus has marked an era of time, recording ends and beginnings as years glide into centuries, and centuries into millennia.Come to the basic of Christmas with reference to The Holy Bible. The basic story occupies hardly a page of the Bible which is divided into two sections the 'OLD' and 'NEW TESTAMENTS'

The old Testament contains many prophecies, one of them speaking of a redeemer who would bring back people to God and give them complete salvation. According to the Christians the birth and life of Jesus is the fulfillment of this prophecyMathew 5:17 says "Do not think that I have come to do away with the Law of Moses and the teachings of the prophets. I have not come to do away with them,but to make their teachings come true".

The birth of Jesus Christ explained like this. "His Mother Mary was engaged to Joseph, but before they were married, she found out that she was going to have a baby by the Holyspirit. Joseph was a man who always did what was right, but he did not want to disgrace Mary publicly; so made plans to break the engagement privately. While he was thinking about this, an Angel of the Lord appeared to him in a dream and said, "Joseph, descendant of David, do not be afraid to take Mary to be your wife, for it is by the Holy spirit that she has conceived. she will have a son, and you will name him JESUS because he will save his people from their sins".

Now all this happened in order to make what the Lord had said through the prophet come true, "a virgin will become pregnant and have a son, and he will be called Immanuel" (which means, "God is with us").Mathew (1:18:23).

Eid

Muslim Celebration

Muslims have two major celebrations in the year. Both are called Eid (meaning celebration). Eid Al-Fitr, or the Celebration of Breaking the Fast, marks the end of Ramadan. Ramadan is the month of fasting.

Eid Al-Fitr is the celebration that comes at the end of Ramadan. Ramadan is a month of fasting, every day from dawn until sunset. The Islamic Calendar follows the moon and so each year, the dates are shifted forwards by about eleven days in the normal calendar. Ramadan is the ninth month of the Muslim year, and is followed by Shawal. The first three days of Shawal

What it is

Eid Al-Fitr is all about celebrating the good things that we have received, God’s (Allah’s) bounty and our family and friends. Every household who can afford it must pay a form of tax in the days leading up to Eid. It is a very small amount, and is paid for each person in the family.

Traditionally the tax was in the form of food, although most people now give the equivalent in money. The money or food is given to poor people, so that they can celebrate Eid, too. The tax is not collected by anyone, and no one is forced to pay it, but it is required as a religious act, and almost everyone pays.

The Celebration

Many people decorate their houses for Eid. This is rather an odd thing, since no-one is sure when Eid is, until the last minute, and so decorations are put up very late on the last day of the month.

Everyone has new clothes for Eid. The last few nights of Ramadan it is almost impossible to get into the shops, as everyone is buying their clothes. A complete outfit is normal, right down to the shoes, and even the headscarves for the women.

On the morning of Eid, everyone gets up very early to go to the prayers. These are special prayers, held only at Eid. They are held only in very big mosques, or in large open areas, such as football stadiums. They are held about 80 minutes after sunrise, so in the summer months it is very early.

After the prayers everyone goes home to eat breakfast and then the celebrations really begin. It isn’t common for children to receive gifts. Instead they receive money. The money should be in the form of a brand new bank note or coins. The amount given is small, usually in the region of about $3, but still they get plenty. Everyone who visits the children, or everyone whom they visit, gives then the gift of money. In a large extended family, with lots of friends, the children can end up with a small fortune!

Sometime around midmorning people start to go out visiting. They visit neighbors and friends in the morning. At each visit special cakes are eaten, and the children receive their money. The visits are very short as there are plenty to make. Dinner is spent with family. The traditional meal varies from country to country, the only standard thing being the special cakes. Each day of the holiday is spent with a different branch of the family, so that everyone gets visited. In the evening the visits start up again. This goes on for three days, but money is normally only given to the children on the first two days.

In between visiting, people make trips out into the streets. Many streets have a sort of fair going, with music, dancing, fireworks, kids' games and much more. Here the children get to spend their money. They buy candy, soft drinks, toys and rides. Everyone has great fun, and the children are always disappointed when it is over. The adults, on the other hand, are usually worn out and glad of the rest!

Ramzan

About Ramzan Id

Coming with the new moon, the festival marks the end of 'Ramadan' - a month when Muslims fast throughout the day and eat only at night Prayers, feasts and family get- together are the major highlights of the celebrations. It was during this month that the holy Koran was revealed. Eid means recurring happiness or festivity. Eid is celebrated in India with much enthusiasm and fervor and Muslims from all strata of life can be seen adorned in beautiful new clothes, visiting the mosques to attend Salatul Eid (Eid prayers). Greetings of "Eid-Mubarak" or "a blessed Eid" are exchanged.

A very important aspect of eid is the charity, which all the Muslims are expected to extend to the needy. Earlier, this was in the form of gifts in kind but now cash is given to the needy. The first Eid of the year is known as "Eid Al Fitr". Al Fitr literally means breaking of fast. Thus Eid Al Fitr is celebrated on the first day of Shawaal, the tenth month in the Muslim calendar, to mark the end of a month long fast during the month of Ramadan. As the third "pillar" or religious obligation of Islam, fasting has many special benefits. Among these, the most important is that it is a means of learning self-control. Due to the lack of preoccupation with the satisfaction of bodily appetites during the daylight hours of fasting, a measure of ascendancy is given to one's spiritual nature, which becomes a means of coming closer to Allah. Ramadan is also a time of concentrated worship, reading of the Quran, purifying one's behavior, giving charity and doing virtuous deeds.

The secondary objective of fasting is a way of experiencing hunger and developing compassion for the less fortunate, and learn to be thankful and appreciative for all of God's bounties. Fasting is also advantageous to the health and provides a break in the cycle of rigid habits.
Eid Al Fitr is a day of joy and thanksgiving. On this day, Muslims show their joy for the health, strength and opportunities of life, which Allah has given them to fulfill their obligations of fasting and other good deeds during the month of Ramadan. It is considered unholy to fast on this day. It is also a day of forgetting old grudges and ill feelings towards other fellow men. The second important Eid celebration is called "Eid Al-Adha".

Although only the pilgrims in Makkah can participate in the Hajj fully, all the other Muslims in the world join with them by celebrating Eid Al-Adha, or "Celebration of Sacrifice." On the 10th day of Dhul-Hijjah, the last month of the Islamic calendar, Muslims around the world celebrate this feast of commitment, obedience and self-sacrifice to Allah. They wear their nicest clothing and attend Salatul-Eid (Eid Prayer) in the morning. This is followed by a short sermon, after which everyone socializes. Next, people visit each other's homes and partake in festive meals with special dishes, beverages, and desserts. Children receive gifts and sweets on this happy occasion. In addition, like the pilgrims in Makkah, the Muslims, who can afford to do so, offer domestic animals, usually sheep, as a symbol of Ibrahim's sacrifice. The meat is distributed for consumption to family, friends, and to the poor and needy. Prayers are offered in mosques and Idgahs and elaborate festivities are held.

SEVEN WONDERS OF THE WORLD

2007-07-21T12:46:00.000-04:00

Taj Mahal India (1630 A.D.) Love and Passion

Taj Mahal is regarded as one of the eight wonders of the world, and some Western historians have noted that its architectural beauty has never been surpassed. The Taj is the most beautiful monument built by the Mughals, the Muslim rulers of India. Taj Mahal is built entirely of white marble. Its stunning architectural beauty is beyond adequate description, particularly at dawn and sunset. The Taj seems to glow in the light of the full moon. On a foggy morning, the visitors experience the Taj as if suspended when viewed from across the Jamuna river.

Taj Mahal was built by a Muslim,Emperor Shah Jahan (died 1666 C.E.) in the memory of his dear wife and queen Mumtaz Mahal at Agra, India. It is an "elegy in marble" or some say an expression of a "dream." Taj Mahal (meaning Crown Palace) is a Mausoleum that houses the grave of queen Mumtaz Mahal at the lower chamber. The grave of Shah Jahan was added to it later. The queen’s real name was Arjumand Banu. In the tradition of the Mughals, important ladies of the royal family were given another name at their marriage or at some other significant event in their lives, and that new name was commonly used by the public. Shah Jahan's real name was Shahab-ud-din, and he was known as Prince Khurram before ascending to the throne in 1628.Taj Mahal was constructed over a period of twenty-two years, employing twenty thousand workers. It was completed in 1648 C.E. at a cost of 32 Million Rupees. The construction documents show that its master architect was Ustad ‘Isa, the renowned Islamic architect of his time. The documents contain names of those employed and the inventory of construction materials and their origin. Expert craftsmen from Delhi, Qannauj, Lahore, and Multan were employed. In addition, many renowned Muslim craftsmen from Baghdad, Shiraz and Bukhara worked on many specialized tasks.

The Taj stands on a raised, square platform (186 x 186 feet) with its four corners truncated, forming an unequal octagon. The architectural design uses the interlocking arabesque concept, in which each element stands on its own and perfectly integrates with the main structure. It uses the principles of self-replicating geometry and a symmetry of architectural elements.

Its central dome is fifty-eight feet in diameter and rises to a height of 213 feet. It is flanked by four subsidiary domed chambers. The four graceful, slender minarets are 162.5 feet each. The entire mausoleum (inside as well as outside) is decorated with inlaid design of flowers and calligraphy using precious gems such as agate and jasper. The main archways, chiseled with passages from the Holy Qur’an and the bold scroll work of flowery pattern, give a captivating charm to its beauty. The central domed chamber and four adjoining chambers include many walls and panels of Islamic decoration.

The mausoleum is a part of a vast complex comprising of a main gateway, an elaborate garden, a mosque (to the left), a guest house (to the right), and several other palatial buildings. The Taj is at the farthest end of this complex, with the river Jamuna behind it. The large garden contains four reflecting pools dividing it at the center. Each of these four sections is further subdivided into four sections and then each into yet another four sections. Like the Taj, the garden elements serve like Arabesque, standing on their own and also constituting the whole.

Prince Khurram, who would become Shah Jahan, was born in India in the same month as the Prophet Mohammed in the auspicious year 1,000 of the Islamic calendar (January 15, 1592). He was named Khurram, which means "joyous," by his doting grandfather Akbar, who said the birth made the world glad. "He was born during the height of Akbar's power," says art historian Shobita Punja, "when most of India came under Mughal rule. He was very well educated, had brilliant teachers, and was quite an aesthete. He really was a very cultured human being."

According to one of the youth's companions at court, Prince Khurram was a handsome youth, "possessed of a sharp wit, a wonderful memory, a love for details and the capacity to master them." Legend has it that the young prince charmed Arjumand Banu Begum (later named Mumtaz Mahal) at the Royal Meena Bazaar during the Moslem New Year festival, where merchants brought fine cloth, precious jewels and other goods for the harem and nobles of the court .

Though court poets celebrated the young girl's beauty, no contemporary likenesses of her are known to exist. According to author and art historian Milo Beach, "There are paintings that are labeled 'Mumtaz Mahal,' but they are simply generalized depictions of a Mughal beauty. There's virtually no contemporary account of her, because none of the historians would have had contact with her." Under Mohammed's law of "purdah," the law of the veil, women were obliged to hide their faces from public view. The only women depicted in paintings were court dancers and entertainers; it was taboo to paint royal women.

"Royal women were kept in seclusion, but that has nothing to do with the power they held," adds Beach. "They clearly were extremely powerful. Shah Jahan's father, Jahangir, married a woman named Nur Jahan who was really the person who ran the empire for the second half of Jahangir's reign, when he became addicted to opium and alcohol. He barely functioned as an emperor, and she ran the country."

"We know very little about Mumtaz Mahal except that she was the daughter of Asaf Khan, who was the Prime Minister for Shah Jahan and son of the Prime Minister for Jahangir whose sister, Nur Jahan, married Jahangir. You cannot be more closely related to the Imperial family than that. Many of Asaf Khan's cousins and other relatives were also placed in positions of enormous power in the Mughal court. So Mumtaz Mahal probably had a very important and influential role in her husband's life."

Before marriage to Mumtaz Mahal, the Emperor Jahangir had arranged two other marriages for his son for political purposes. But although Shah Jahan had three regular wives, Mumtaz Mahal became his favorite and bore his only children. The Prince would not part with her even on his numerous military campaigns. In his suffering, she sustained him; in his glory, she inspired him to acts of charity and benevolence. Both comrade and counselor, she was beloved by him for her unswerving loyalty and by his people for her wise and compassionate guidance.

Year of Birth - 1592 Real Name
Khurram Father - Emperor Jahangir Mother
Princess Manmati Marriage
Married Arjumand Bano (Mumtaz Mahal) in 1612. She died in 1631, giving birth to his 14th children.
Died - 1666
Rule Period - 1627 to 1658

In 1631 Shah Jahan, emperor during the Mughal's period of greatest prosperity, was griefstricken when his second wife, Mumtaz Mahal, died during the birth of their daughter Gauhara Begum, their fourteenth child. Contemporary court chronicles concerning Shah Jahan's grief form the basis of the love story traditionally held as the inspiration for the Taj Mahal.

Construction of the Taj Mahal was begun soon after Mumtaz's death. The principal mausoleum was completed in 1648, and the surrounding buildings and garden were finished five years later. Visiting Agra in 1663, the French traveller François Bernier wrote the following:

I shall finish this letter with a description of the two wonderful mausoleums which constitute the chief superiority of Agra over Delhi. One was erected by Jehan-guyre [sic] in honor of his father Ekbar; and Chah-Jehan raised the other to the memory of his wife Tage Mehale, that extraordinary and celebrated beauty, of whom her husband was so enamoured it is said that he was constant to her during life, and at her death was so affected as nearly to follow her to the gave.

The garden

The complex is set in and around a large charbagh (a formal Mughal garden divided into four parts). Measuring 300 meters × 300 meters, the garden uses raised pathways which divide each quarter of the garden into 16 sunken parterres or flowerbeds. A raised marble water tank at the center of the garden, halfway between the tomb and the gateway, and a linear reflecting pool on the North-South axis reflect the Taj Mahal. Elsewhere the garden is laid out with avenues of trees and fountains.

The charbagh garden is meant to symbolize the four flowing Rivers of Paradise. The raised marble water tank is called al Hawd al-Kawthar, literally meaning and named after the "Tank of Abundance" promised to Muhammad.

The charbagh garden was introduced to India by the first Mughal emperor Babur, a design inspired by Persian gardens. The charbagh is meant to reflect the gardens of Paradise (from the Persian paridaeza — a walled garden). In mystic Islamic texts of the Mughal period, paradise is described as an ideal garden, filled with abundance. Water plays a key role in these descriptions: In Paradise, these text say, four rivers source at a central spring or mountain, and separate the garden into north, west, south and east.

Most Mughal charbaghs are rectangular in form, with a tomb or pavilion in the center of the garden. The Taj Mahal garden is unusual in that the main element, the tomb, is located at the end rather than at the center of the garden. But the existence of the newly discovered Mahtab Bagh or "Moonlight Garden" on the other side of the Yamuna provides a different interpretation that the Yamuna itself was incorporated into the garden's design, and was meant to be seen as one of the rivers of Paradise.

The layout of the garden, and its architectural features such as its fountains, brick and marble walkways, and geometric brick-lined flowerbeds are similar to Shalimar's, and suggest that the garden may have been designed by the same engineer, Ali Mardan.

Early accounts of the garden describe its profusion of vegetation, including roses, daffodils, and fruit trees in abundance. As the Mughal Empire declined, the tending of the garden declined as well. When the British took over management of the Taj Mahal, they changed the landscaping to resemble the formal lawns of London.

Outlying buildings

The Taj Mahal complex is bounded by a crenellated red sandstone wall on three sides. The river-facing side is unwalled. Outside the wall are several additional mausoleums, including those of many of Shah Jahan's other wives, and a larger tomb for Mumtaz's favorite servant. These structures, composed primarily of red sandstone, are typical of smaller Mughal tombs of the era.

On the inner (garden) side, the wall is fronted by columned arcades, a feature typical of Hindu temples later incorporated into Mughal mosques. The wall is interspersed with domed kiosks (chattris), and small buildings which may have been viewing areas or watch towers, such as the so-called Music House, now used as a museum.

The main gateway (darwaza) is a monumental structure built primarily of marble. The style is reminiscent of that of Mughal architecture of earlier emperors. Its archways mirror the shape of the tomb's archways, and its pishtaq arches incorporate the calligraphy that decorates the tomb. It utilises bas-relief and pietra dura (inlaid) decorations with floral motifs. The vaulted ceilings and walls have elaborate geometric designs, like those found in the other sandstone buildings of the complex.

At the far end of the complex, two grand red sandstone buildings open to the sides of the tomb. Their backs parallel the western and eastern walls.

The two buildings are precise mirror images of each other. The western building is a mosque; its opposite is the jawab (answer) whose primary purpose was architectural balance (and which may have been used as a guesthouse during Mughal times). The distinctions are that the jawab lacks a mihrab, a niche in a mosque's wall facing Mecca, and the floors of the jawab have a geometric design, while the mosque floor was laid out with the outlines of 569 prayer rugs in black marble.

The mosque's basic design is similar to others built by Shah Jahan, particularly to his Masjid-i-Jahan Numa, or Jama Masjid of Delhi — a long hall surmounted by three domes. Mughal mosques of this period divide the sanctuary hall into three areas: a main sanctuary with slightly smaller sanctuaries to either side. At the Taj Mahal, each sanctuary opens onto an enormous vaulting dome.

The outlying buildings were completed in 1643.

The tomb

The focus of the Taj Mahal is the white marble tomb. Like most Mughal tombs, the basic elements are Persian in origin consisting of a symmetrical building with an iwan, an arch-shaped doorway, topped by a large dome. The tomb stands on a square plinth. The base structure is a large, multi-chambered structure. The main chamber houses the cenotaphs of Mumtaz Mahal and Shah Jahan with the actual graves located a level below.

The base is essentially a cube with chamfered edges, roughly 55 meters on each side (see floor plan, right). On the long sides, a massive pishtaq, or vaulted archway, frames the iwan, with a similar arch-shaped balcony above. These main arches extend above the roof of the building by use of an integrated facade. On either side of the main arch, additional pishtaqs are stacked above and below. This motif of stacked pishtaqs is replicated on the chamfered corner areas.
The design is completely symmetrical on all sides of the building. Four minarets, one at each corner of the plinth, facing the chamfered corners, frame the tomb.

Dome

The marble dome that surmounts the tomb is its most spectacular feature. Its height is about the same size as the base of the building, about 35 meters. Its height is accentuated because it sits on a cylindrical "drum" about 7 meters high.

Because of its shape, the dome is often called an onion dome (also called an amrud or guava dome). The top of the dome is decorated with a lotus design, which serves to accentuate its height. The dome is topped by a gilded finial, which mixes traditional Persian and Hindu decorative elements.

The dome shape is emphasised by four smaller domed chattris (kiosks) placed at its corners. The chattri domes replicate the onion shape of main dome. Their columned bases open through the roof of the tomb, and provide light to the interior. The chattris also are topped by gilded finials.

Tall decorative spires (guldastas) extend from the edges of the base walls, and provide visual emphasis of the dome height.

The lotus motif is repeated on both the chattris and guldastas.

Finial

The main dome is crowned by a gilded spire or finial. The finial was made of gold until the early 1800s, and it is now made of bronze. The finial provides a clear example of the integration of traditional Persian and Hindu decorative elements. The finial is topped by a moon, a typical Islamic motif, whose horns point heavenward. Because of its placement on the main spire, the horns of the moon and the finial point combine to create a trident shape — reminiscent of the traditional Hindu symbols.

Minarets

At the corners of the plinth stand minarets — four large towers each more than 40 meters tall. The minarets again display the Taj Mahal's penchant for symmetry.

The towers are designed as working minarets, a traditional element of mosques, a place for a muezzin to call the Islamic faithful to prayer. Each minaret is effectively divided into three equal parts by two working balconies that ring the tower. At the top of the tower is a final balcony surmounted by a chattri that mirrors the design of those on the tomb.

The minaret chattris share the same finishing touches: a lotus design topped by a gilded finial. Each of the minarets was constructed slightly out of plumb to the outside of the plinth, so that in the event of collapse (a typical occurrence with many such tall constructions of the period) the material would tend to fall away from the tomb

DECORATION

Exterior decoration

Nearly every surface of the entire complex has been decorated. The exterior decorations of the Taj Mahal are among the finest to be found in Mughal architecture of any period. As the surface area changes — a large pishtaq has more area than a smaller — the decorations are refined proportionally.

In line with the Islamic prohibition of the use of anthropomorphic forms, the decorative elements come in basically three categories:
· Calligraphy
· Abstract geometric elements
· Vegetative motifs
The decorative elements were created in three ways:
· Paint or stucco applied to the wall surface
· Stone inlay
· Carvings

Calligraphy

Throughout the complex, passages from the Qur'an are used as decorative elements. The calligraphy is a florid and practically illegible thuluth script, created by the resident Mughal court's Persian calligrapher, Amanat Khan who signed several of the panels. As one enters through the Taj Mahal Gate, the calligraphy reads "O Soul, thou art at rest. Return to the Lord at peace with Him, and He at peace with you."

The calligraphy is made by jasper inlaid in white marble panels. Some of the work is extremely detailed and delicate, especially that found on the marble cenotaphs in the tomb. Higher panels are written slightly larger to reduce the skewing effect when viewed from below.

Recent scholarship suggests that Amanat Khan chose the passages as well. The texts refer to themes of judgment: of doom for nonbelievers, and the promise of Paradise for the faithful. The passages include: Surah 91 (The Sun), Surah 112 (The Purity of Faith), Surah 89 (Daybreak), Surah 93 (Morning Light), Surah 95 (The Fig), Surah 94 (The Solace), Surah 36 (Ya Sin), Surah 81 (The Folding Up), Surah 82 (The Cleaving Asunder), Surah 84 (The Rending Asunder), Surah 98 (The Evidence), Surah 67 (Dominion), Surah 48 (Victory), Surah 77 (Those Sent Forth) and Surah 39 (The Crowds).

Abstract geometric decoration

Abstract forms are used especially in the plinth, minarets, gateway, mosque, and jawab, and, to a lesser extent, on the surfaces of the tomb. The domes and vaults of the sandstone buildings are worked with tracery of incised painting to create elaborate geometric forms. (The incised painting technique is to scratch a channel in the stone, and to then lay a thick paint or stucco plaster across the surface. The paint is then scraped off the surface of the stone, leaving paint in the incision.) On most joining areas, herringbone inlays define the space between adjoining elements. White inlays are used in the sandstone buildings, dark or black inlays on the white marble of the tomb and minarets. Mortared areas of the marble buildings have been stained or painted dark, creating geometric patterns of considerable complexity.

Floors and walkways throughout use contrasting tiles or blocks in tessellation patterns.

Plant motifs

The lower walls of the tomb are white marble dados that have been sculpted with realistic bas relief depictions of flowers and vines. The marble has been polished to emphasise the exquisite detailing of these carvings.The dado frames and archway spandrels have been decorated with pietra dura inlays of highly stylised, almost geometric vines, flowers and fruits. The inlay stones are yellow marble, jasper and jade, leveled and polished to the surface of the walls.

Interior decoration

The interior chamber of the Taj Mahal steps far beyond traditional decorative elements. One may say without exaggeration that this chamber is a work of jewellery. Here the inlay work is not pietra dura, but lapidary. The inlay material is not marble or jade but precious and semiprecious gemstones. Every decorative element of the tomb's exterior has been redefined with jeweler's art.

The inner chamber

The inner chamber of the Taj Mahal contains the cenotaphs of Mumtaz and Shah Jahan. It is a masterpiece of artistic craftsmanship, virtually without precedent or equal.

The inner chamber is an octagon. While the design allows for entry from each face, only the south (garden facing) door is used.

The interior walls are about 25 meters high, topped by a "false" interior dome decorated with a sun motif.

Eight pishtaq arches define the space at ground level. As is typical with the exterior, each lower pishtaq is crowned by a second pishtaq about midway up the wall. The four central upper arches form balconies or viewing areas; each balcony's exterior window has an intricate screen or jali cut from marble.

In addition to the light from the balcony screens, light enters through roof openings covered by the chattris at the corners of the exterior dome.

Each of the chamber walls has been highly decorated with dado bas relief, intricate lapidary inlay and refined calligraphy panels, reflecting in miniature detail the design elements seen throughout the exterior of the complex.

The jali

The octagonal marble screen or jali which borders the cenotaphs is made from eight marble panels. Each panel has been carved through with intricate piercework. The remaining surfaces have been inlaid with semiprecious stones in extremely delicate detail, forming twining vines, fruits and flowers.

The cenotaphs and tombs

Mumtaz Mahal's cenotaph is placed at the precise center of the inner chamber. On a rectangular marble base about 1.5 meters by 2.5 meters is a smaller marble casket. Both base and casket are elaborately inlaid with precious and semiprecious gems. Calligraphic inscriptions on the casket identify and praise Mumtaz. On the lid of the casket is a raised rectangular lozenge meant to suggest a writing tablet.

Muslim tradition forbids elaborate decoration of graves, so the bodies of Mumtaz and Shah Jahan are laid in a relatively plain crypt beneath the inner chamber of the Taj Mahal. They are buried on a north-south axis, with faces turned right (west toward Mecca).

Shah Jahan's cenotaph is beside Mumtaz's to the western side. It is the only visible asymmetric element in the entire complex (see below). His cenotaph is bigger than his wife's, but reflects the same elements: A larger casket on slightly taller base, again decorated with astonishing precision with lapidary and calligraphy which identifies Shah Jahan. On the lid of this casket is a sculpture of a small pen box. (The pen box and writing tablet were traditional Mughal funerary icons decorating men's and women's caskets respectively.)

"O Noble, O Magnificent, O Majestic, O Unique, O Eternal, O Glorious... " These are six of the Ninety Nine Names of God, which are to be found as calligraphic inscriptions on the sides of the actual tomb of Mumtaz Mahal, in the crypt. The tomb of Shah Jahan bears a calligraphic inscription, not taken from the Qur'an, but referring to the resting place of this Mughal Emperor. Part of the inscription reads; "He traveled from this world to the banquet-hall of Eternity on the night of the twenty-sixth of the month of Rajab, in the year 1076 Hijri."

Construction

The Taj Mahal was built on a parcel of land to the south of the walled city of Agra which had belonged to Maharajah Jai Singh: Shah Jahan presented him with a large palace in the centre of Agra in exchange. Construction began with setting the foundations for the tomb. An area of roughly three acres was excavated and filled with dirt to reduce seepage from the river. The entire site was leveled to a fixed height about 50 meters above the riverbank. The Taj Mahal is 55 meters tall. The dome itself measures 18 meters in diameter and 24 meters high.

View from the Agra Fort.

In the tomb area, wells were then dug to the point that water was encountered. These wells were later filled with stone and rubble, forming the basis for the footings of the tomb. [An additional well was built to same depth nearby to provide a visual method to track water level changes over time.]

Instead of lashed bamboo, the typical scaffolding method, workmen constructed a colossal brick scaffold that mirrored the inner and outer surfaces of the tomb. The scaffold was so enormous that foremen estimated it would take years to dismantle. According to legend, Shah Jahan decreed that anyone could keep bricks taken from the scaffold, and it was dismantled by peasants overnight.

A fifteen-kilometer tamped-earth ramp was built to transport marble and materials to the construction site. According to contemporary accounts teams of twenty or thirty oxen strained to pull the blocks on specially constructed wagons.

To raise the blocks into position required an elaborate post-and-beam pulley system. Teams of mules and oxen provided the lifting power.
The order of construction was
The plinth
The tomb
The four minarets
The mosque and jawab
The gateway

The plinth and tomb took roughly 12 years to complete. The remaining parts of the complex took an additional 10 years. (Since the complex was built in stages, contemporary historical accounts list different "completion dates"; discrepancies between so-called completion dates are probably the result of differing opinions about the definition of "completion". For example, the mausoleum itself was essentially complete by 1643, but work continued on the rest of the complex.)

Water infrastructure

Water for the Taj Mahal was provided through a complex infrastructure. Water was drawn from the river by a series of purs -- an animal-powered rope and bucket mechanism. The water flowed into a large storage tank, where, by thirteen additional purs, it was raised to large distribution tank above the Taj Mahal ground level.

From this distribution tank, water passed into three subsidiary tanks, from which it was piped to the complex. A 0.25 meter earthenware pipe lies about 1.5 meters below the surface, in line with the main walkway; this filled the main pools of the complex. Additional copper pipes supplied the fountains in the north-south canal. Subsidiary channels were dug to irrigate the entire garden.

The fountain pipes were not connected directly to the feed pipes. Instead, a copper pot was provided under each fountain pipe: water filled the pots allowing equal pressure in each fountain.

The purs no longer remain, but the other parts of the infrastructure have survived.

Craftsmen

The Taj Mahal was not designed by a single person. The project demanded talent from many people.

The names of many of the builders who participated in the construction of the Taj Mahal in different capacities have come down through various sources.

The Persian or Turkish architect, Ustad Isa and Isa Muhammad Effendi, trained by the Ottoman architect Koca Mimar Sinan Agha are frequently credited with a key role in the architectural design of the complex, but in fact there is little evidence to support this tradition.

'Puru' from Benarus, Persia (Iran), has been mentioned as a supervising architect in Persian language texts (e.g. see ISBN 964-7483-39-2).

The main dome was designed by Ismail Khan from the Ottoman Empire, considered to be the premier designer of hemispheres and builder of domes of that age. Qazim Khan, a native of Lahore, cast the solid gold finial that crowned the Turkish master's dome.

Chiranjilal, a lapidary from Delhi, was chosen as the chief sculptor and mosaicist.
Amanat Khan from Persian Shiraz, Iran was the chief calligrapher (this fact is attested on the Taj Mahal gateway itself, where his name has been inscribed at the end of the inscription).
Muhammad Hanif was the supervisor of masons.

Mir Abdul Karim and Mukkarimat Khan of Shiraz, Iran handled finances and the management of daily production.

The creative team included sculptors from Bukhara, calligraphers from Syria and Persia, inlayers from southern India, stonecutters from Baluchistan, a specialist in building turrets, another who carved only marble flowers — thirty-seven men in all formed the creative nucleus. To this core was added a labour force of twenty thousand workers recruited from across northern India.

Particularly during the British Raj, some commentators suggested that the Taj Mahal was the work of European artisans. As early as 1640, a Spanish friar who visited Agra wrote that Geronimo Veroneo, an Italian adventurer in Shah Jahan's court, was primarily responsible for the design. There is no reliable evidence to back up such assertions. E.B. Havell, the principal British scholar of Indian art in the later Raj, dismissed this theory as inconsistent with the methods employed by the designers. His conclusions were further supported by the research of Muhammad Abdullah Chaghtai, who concluded that some of these theories may have been based on the misapprehension that "Ustad Isa", so often credited with the Taj's design, must have been a Christian because he bore the name "Isa" (Jesus). In fact this is a common Muslim name as well. Furthermore there is no source earlier than the 19th century which mentions an "Ustad Isa" in connection with the Taj Mahal . Chaghtai thought it more likely that the chief architect was Ustad Ahmad, the designer of Shahjahanabad, but admitted that this could not be conclusively proved from existing sources.

Costs

Estimates of the cost of the construction of the Taj Mahal vary due to the difficulties of estimating construction costs across time. The total cost of the Taj Mahal's construction has been estimated to be about 32 million rupees. However, when considering the labor costs and the time period that it took, and the difference in economic eras, it is, to many, considered priceless.

Materials

The Taj Mahal was constructed using materials from all over India and Asia. Over 1,000 elephants were used to transport building materials during the construction. The translucent white marble was brought from Rajasthan, the jasper from Punjab, jade and crystal from China. The turquoise was from Tibet and the Lapis lazuli from Afghanistan, while the sapphire came from Sri Lanka and the carnelian from Arabia. In all, twenty eight types of precious and semi-precious stones were inlaid into the white marble.

India's Taj Mahal Set to Celebrate 350th Birthday

One of the world's most famous monuments, India's Taj Mahal, celebrates its 350th birthday on Monday with a cultural extravaganza that hopes to pay a fitting tribute to the historic symbol of love. The celebrations, to be held at a famous Mughal fort near the white marble mausoleum in northern India, will start with a release of pigeons and a kite-flying contest before moving to a classical music concert at sunset with the Taj as the backdrop. "This is the start of a six-month celebration aimed at drawing tourists to Agra and the Taj Mahal," D.K. Burman, a senior government official organizing the festivities in the town of Agra, "It's part of our marketing strategy. Although the Taj gets many visitors, you can't stop marketing it. It's like Surf, the detergent, it sells a lot but that doesn't mean you don't market Surf any more." Archaeologists also want to open the Taj for night viewing on full moon nights as part of the celebrations, which are expected to draw millions of visitors to the congested, polluted town of Agra, 125 miles south of New Delhi. Coinciding with the start of celebrations, India's Supreme Court will hear on Monday a petition by the government of Uttar Pradesh state, where Agra is located, seeking the lifting of a ban on allowing visitors to the Taj after sunset. The ban was imposed in 1984 following reports that the monument was a target of militant groups and reinforced in 2000 over concern about preserving the site. But that has in no way reduced the attraction of the Taj, as every day, up to 15,000 people file past the manicured lawns of the imposing structure, built by Emperor Shahjahan as a testament to his love for his wife Mumtaz Mahal, who died in childbirth.

STRESSED BY VISITORS

Historians say Shahjahan consulted experts from the Middle East and Europe as he planned his legacy, which took 20,000 people over 22 years to build. Although there is some dispute about when it was finished, the government and the Archaeological Survey of India say 1654. The Taj Mahal stands on a marble platform surrounded by ornamental gardens. White minarets grace each corner and two smaller red sandstone buildings balance the postcard-perfect image on the banks of the Yamuna River. But the surface of the onion-domed monument became yellow over the years because of automobile fumes, smoke from small factories, a large oil refinery near Agra and funeral pyres at a nearby cremation ground. Two years ago, authorities used a pack made of brown clay to restore the original whiteness of the mausoleum. "Pollution is no longer a problem. But the building is stressed because of the huge number of visitors," said D. Dayalan, head of the Archaeological Survey of India in Agra. "Vandalism remains a big threat. The breathing of the visitors can damage the building. Also, so many people walking on the same path for years has caused some abrasion on the floor," he told It may be a monument to love, but the Taj has seen its share of trials and tribulations. Last year, the Uttar Pradesh government began work on a shopping mall on a river bank near the Taj before it was halted following a row over the plan, which environmentalists said posed a danger to the monument. When war clouds loomed in 2002, Indian officials drew up a plan to camouflage the monument, one of the seven wonders of the world, with olive green cloth to stop Pakistani jets from spotting it.

How To Reach TajMahal

Agra by air

Agra airport is 7 km from the city center and 3 km from Idgah bus stand. Indian airlines operate daily tourist shuttle flights to Agra, Khajuraho, Varanasi and back. It only takes 40 minutes from Delhi to Agra.

Agra by Road

Agra Idgah bus stand is the main bus stand of Agra, from where one can catch buses for Delhi, Jaipur, Mathura, Fatehpur-Sikri, etc. Buses for Mathura also leave from Agra Fort bus stand.

Agra by Rail

Agra is well connected by railroad. The main railway station is the Agra Cantonment station. Agra is well connected by rail to Delhi, Varanasi and cities of Rajasthan. Trains like Palace on Wheel, Shatabdi, Rajdhani, and Taj Express are the best choices if you want to reach Agra from Delhi.

Great Wall of China (220 B.C and 1368-1644 A.D.) Perseverance and Persistence.

The Chinese were already familiar with the techniques of wall-building by the time of the Spring and Autumn Period, which began around the 8th century BC. During the Warring States Period from the 5th century BC to 221 BC, the states of Qi, Yan and Zhao all constructed extensive fortifications to defend their own borders. Built to withstand the attack of small arms such as swords and spears, these walls were made mostly by stamping earth and gravel between board frames.

Qin Shi Huang conquered all opposing states and unified China in 221 BC, establishing the Qin Dynasty. Intending to impose centralized rule and prevent the resurgence of feudal lords, he ordered the destruction of the wall sections that divided his empire along the former state borders. To protect the empire against intrusions by the Xiongnu people from the north, he ordered the building of a new wall to connect the remaining fortifications along the empire's new northern frontier. Transporting the large quantity of materials required for construction was difficult, so builders always tried to use local resources. Stones from the mountains were used over mountain ranges, while rammed earth was used for construction in the plains. There are no surviving historical records indicating the exact length and course of the Qin Dynasty walls. Most of the ancient walls have eroded away over the centuries, and very few sections remain today. Later, the Han, Sui, Northern and Jin dynasties all repaired, rebuilt, or expanded sections of the Great Wall at great cost to defend themselves against northern invaders.

The Great Wall concept was revived again during the Ming Dynasty following the Ming army's defeat by the Mongols in the Battle of Tumu in 1449. The Ming had failed to gain a clear upper-hand over the Mongols after successive battles, and the long-drawn conflict was taking a toll on the empire. The Ming adopted a new strategy to keep the Mongols out by constructing walls along the northern border of China. Acknowledging the Mongol control established in the Ordos Desert, the wall followed the desert's southern edge instead of incorporating the bend of the Huang He.

Unlike the earlier Qin fortifications, the Ming construction was stronger and more elaborate due to the use of bricks and stone instead of rammed earth. As Mongol raids continued periodically over the years, the Ming devoted considerable resources to repair and reinforce the walls. Sections near the Ming capital of Beijing were especially strengthened.

Towards the end of the Ming Dynasty, the Great Wall helped defend the empire against the Manchu invasions that began around 1600. Under the military command of Yuan Chonghuan, the Ming army held off the Manchus at the heavily fortified Shanhai Pass, preventing the Manchus from entering the Liaodong Peninsula and the Chinese heartland. The Manchus were finally able to cross the Great Wall in 1644, when the gates of Shanhai Pass were opened by Wu Sangui, a corrupt Ming border general, after being bribed. The Manchus quickly seized Beijing, and defeated the remaining Ming resistance, to establish the Qing Dynasty.

Under Qing rule, China's borders extended beyond the walls, and Mongolia was annexed into the empire, so construction and repairs on the Great Wall were discontinued.

Notable areas

An area of the sections of the Great Wall at Jinshanling

The following three sections are in Beijing municipality, which were renovated and which are regularly visited by modern tourists:

The "North Pass" of Juyongguan pass, known as the Badaling. When used by the Chinese to protect their land, this section of the wall has had many guards to defend China’s capital, Beijing. Made of stone and bricks from the hills, this portion of the Great Wall is 7.8 meters (25.6 ft) high and 5 meters (16.4 ft) wide.

One of the most striking sections of the Ming Great Wall is where it climbs extremely steep slopes. It runs 11 kilometers (7 mi) long, ranges from 5 to 8 meters (16–26 ft) in height, and 6 meters (19.7 ft) across the bottom, narrowing up to 5 meters (16.4 ft) across the top. Wangjinglou is one of Jinshanling's 67 watchtowers, 980 meters (3,215 ft)above sea level.

South East of Jinshanling, is the Mutianyu Great Wall which winds along lofty, cragged mountains from the southeast to the northwest for approximately 2.25 kilometers (about 1.3 miles). It is connected with Juyongguan Pass to the west and Gubeikou to the east.

Another notable section lies near the eastern extremity of the wall, where the first pass of the Great Wall was built on the Shanhaiguan (known as the “Number One Pass Under Heaven”), the first mountain the Great Wall climbs. Jia Shan is also here, as is the Jiumenkou, which is the only portion of the wall that was built as a bridge. Shanhaiguan Great Wall is called the “Museum of the Construction of the Great Wall”, because of the Meng Jiang-Nu Temple, built during the Song Dynasty.

Characteristics

The Great Wall on a 1805 map .

Before the use of bricks, the Great Wall was mainly built from earth, stones, and wood.
During the Ming Dynasty, however, bricks were heavily used in many areas of the wall, as were materials such as tiles, lime, and stone. The size and weight of the bricks made them easier to work with than earth and stone, so construction quickened. Additionally, bricks could bear more weight and endure better than rammed earth. Stone can hold under its own weight better than brick, but is more difficult to use. Consequently, stones cut in rectangular shapes were used for the foundation, inner and outer brims, and gateways of the wall. Battlements line the uppermost portion of the vast majority of the wall, with defensive gaps a little over 30 cm (a foot) tall, and about 23 cm (9 inches) wide.

The steps that form the Great Wall of China are very steep and tall in some areas. Tourists often become exhausted climbing the wall and walk no more than a kilometre or two (around a mile).

Condition

The Great Wall at Mutianyu, near Beijing.
While some portions north of Beijing and near tourist centers have been preserved and even reconstructed, in many locations the Wall is in disrepair. Those parts might serve as a village playground or a source of stones to rebuild houses and roads. Sections of the Wall are also prone to graffiti and vandalism. Parts have been destroyed because the Wall is in the way of construction. No comprehensive survey of the wall has been carried out, so it is not possible to say how much of it survives, especially in remote areas. Intact or repaired portions of the Wall near developed tourist areas are often frequented by sellers of tourist kitsch.

Watchtowers and barracks

The wall also has watch towers at regular intervals, which were used to store weapons, house troops, and send smoke signals. Barracks and administrative centers are located at larger intervals.

Communication between the army units along the length of the Great Wall, including the ability to call reinforcements and warn garrisons of enemy movements, was of high importance. Signal towers were built upon hill tops or other high points along the wall for their visibility.

Recognition

The Wall was made a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1987.

Mao Zedong had a saying, "You're not a real man if you haven't climbed the Great Wall" (Simplified Chinese, Traditional Chinese, Pinyin Bú dào Chángchéng fēi hǎo hàn). Originally this saying was used to bolster his revolution in trekking north. But over time the saying has been reduced to a promotional slogan for the Great Wall of China. In Badaling (north of Beijing) the 'real man stone' can be found with the saying engraved on it.

Lists of recommended travel destinations often feature the Great Wall of China, which also appears in several listings of seven wonders of the modern world -- including the recently announced New Seven Wonders of the World which claimed to record a 100 million votes.

Visibility

Visibility from the moon

The Great Wall of China as seen in a false-color radar image from the Space Shuttle, taken in April 1994.

Ripley's Believe It or Not! cartoon from May 1932 makes the claim that the wall is "the mightiest work of man, the only one that would be visible to the human eye from the moon" and Richard Halliburton's 1938 book Second Book of Marvels makes a similar claim. This belief has persisted, assuming urban legend status, sometimes even entering school textbooks. Arthur Waldron, author of history of the Great Wall, has speculated that the belief might go back to the fascination with the "canals" once believed to exist on Mars. (The logic was simple: If people on Earth can see the Martians' canals, the Martians might be able to see the Great Wall).

The Great Wall is a maximum 30 ft (9.1m) wide and is about the same color as the soil surrounding it. Based on the optics of resolving power (distance versus the width of the iris: a few millimetres for the human eye, metres for large telescopes) an object of reasonable contrast to its surroundings some four thousand miles in diameter (such as the Australian land mass) would be visible to the unaided eye from the moon (average distance from earth 238,857 miles (384,393 km)). But the Great Wall is of course not a disc but more like a thread, and a thread a foot (15 cm) long would not be visible from a hundred yards (90 m) away, even though a human head is. Not surprisingly, no lunar astronaut has ever claimed he could see the Great Wall from the moon.

Visibility from near earth orbit

A remote western section of the Great Wall, Jiayuguan Pass, Gansu
A different question is whether it is visible from near-Earth orbit, i.e at an altitude of less than 500 kilometers (311 mi) (0.1% of the distance of the moon). The consensus here is that it is barely visible, and only under nearly perfect conditions; it is no more conspicuous than many other manmade objects.

Astronaut William Pogue thought he had seen it from Skylab but discovered he was actually looking at the Grand Canal of China near Beijing. He spotted the Great Wall with binoculars, but said that "it wasn't visible to the unaided eye." US Senator Jake Garn claimed to be able to see the Great Wall with the naked eye from a space shuttle orbit in the early 1980s, but his claim has been disputed by several US astronauts. Chinese astronaut Yang Liwei said he could not see it at all.

Veteran US astronaut Gene Cernan has stated: "At Earth orbit of 160 kilometers (99 mi) to 320 kilometers (199 mi) high, the Great Wall of China is, indeed, visible to the naked eye." Ed Lu, Expedition 7 Science Officer aboard the International Space Station, adds that, "it's less visible than a lot of other objects. And you have to know where to look."

Neil Armstrong stated about the view from Apollo 11: "I do not believe that, at least with my eyes, there would be any man-made object that I could see. I have not yet found somebody who has told me they've seen the Wall of China from Earth orbit. ... I've asked various people, particularly Shuttle guys, that have been many orbits around China in the daytime, and the ones I've talked to didn't see it."

Leroy Chiao, a Chinese-American astronaut, took a photograph from the International Space Station that shows the wall. It was so indistinct that the photographer was not certain he had actually captured it. Based on the photograph, the state-run China Daily newspaper concluded that the Great Wall can be seen from space with the naked eye, under favorable viewing conditions, if one knows exactly where to look.

First Construction of the Great Wall

The first emperor of United China connected the discontinuous walls with watch towers with was used to guard as the rampart. It was mainly built against Hsiung-nu or called he Huns. The wall was constructed partly of masonry and partly of earth and was faced with brick in the eastern portion. It was again rebuilt in the 15th and 16th century. The basic Wall is 30feet height and the towers are 40m high. The great wall lies from 39.49 degrees North to 98.18 degrees East. The Yen Mountains are the world famous ones and has peak up to 4,900 feet above main sea level. The great wall has it crest over these mountains in a zigzag manner.

According to the words of the Astronauts and space researchers, the only clear and visible one from the moon on earth is only “The Great Wall”. A statement said “The Great wall is the only visible thing from Satellite”.

Chinese Civilization

China was the only country with the oldest civilization and it led up to 2000 Years from 221 B.C. to 1911 A.D. and remained as a united one until the series of powerful rules. The great walls construction was carried on only during this period and the main reason why the wall bent at some occasions was this because the capitals were shifted, the borders were changed and mainly the country was captured by fierce tribes of the period including the Mongols and however for the most of the history of china, it was the only developed country of that period in art and technology only because of its construction of the great wall. The inventions of paper, porcelain and gunpowder were the main during the construction of the great wall. The inventions of paper, porcelain and gun power were the main construction items used during the construction of great wall.

After the construction of the great wall the Qin empire was the first empire to be protected by the great wall which is now the northern and eastern china. The wall was built there as a defense against the Hostile tribal attacks from central Asia. The Qin warriors used to walk on the walls as security and the warriors from the great wall attacked the enemies and this was mainly the reason for the expansion of their empire. The great wall is still now the longest man made structure on earth. It was built before 2,200 years with about 3,00,000 slaves. More than 90% of the slaves who built the great wall were brought from Macao a tiny peninsula in the southeast china and was a Portuguese colony at that time. It was returned back to china in 1999. It was a famous tourist center at that time and cheap labor was available there.

Petra, Jordan (9 B.C. - 40 A.D.) Engineering and Protection

"... match me such a marvel, save in Eastern climeA rose-red city, half as old as time.

Background

Petra was first established sometime around the 6th century BC, by the Nabataean Arabs, a nomadic tribe who settled in the area and laid the foundations of a commercial empire that extended into Syria. Despite successive attempts by the Seleucid king Antigonus, the Roman emperor Pompey and Herod the Great to bring Petra under the control of their respective empires, Petra remained largely in Nabataean hands until around 100AD, when the Romans took over. It was still inhabited during the Byzantine period, when the former Roman empire moved its focus east to Constantinople, but declined in importance thereafter. The Crusaders constructed a fort there in the 12th century, but soon withdrew, leaving Petra to the local people until the early 19th century, when it was visited by the Swiss explorer Johann Ludwig Burckhardt.

Location

Petra lies about 3-5 hours south of modern Amman, about 2 hours north of Aqaba, on the edges of the mountainous desert of the Wadi Araba. The city is surrounded by towering hills of rust-coloured sandstone which gave the city some natural protection against invaders.

The site is semi-arid, the friable sandstone which allowed the Nabataeans to carve their temples and tombs into the rock crumbling easily to sand. The colour of the rock ranges from pale yellow or white through rich reds to the darker brown of more resistant rocks. The contorted strata of different-coloured rock form whorls and waves of colour in the rock face, which the Nabataeans exploited in their architecture.

The Siq

From the official entrance to the site, a dusty trail leads gently downwards along the Wadi Musa (The Valley of Moses). Situated in small rock outcrops to the left and right of the path are some small Nabataean tombs, carved into the dry rock. Beyond these, walls of sandstone rise steeply on the left, and a narrow cleft reveals the entrance to the Siq, the principal route into Petra itself.

The Nabataeans were expert hydraulic engineers. The walls of the Siq are lined with channels (originally fitted with chamfered clay pipes of efficient design) to carry drinking water to the city, while a dam to the right of the entrance diverted an adjoining stream through a tunnel to prevent it flooding the Siq.

Once inside, the Siq narrows to little more than five metres in width, while the walls tower up hundreds of metres on either side. The floor, originally paved, is now largely covered with soft sand, although evidence of Nabataean construction can still be seen in some places.

The Siq twists and turns, the high walls all but shutting out the early morning sunlight, until abruptly, through a cleft in the rock , the first glimpse of the city of Petra can be seen. Carved out of pale reddish sandstone, ornate pillars supporting a portico surmounted by a central urn and two flanking blocks, jut out from the cliff face ahead. This is The Khazneh ...

The Khazneh

The best-known of the monuments at Petra, the Khazneh is also the first to greet the visitor arriving via the Siq. The facade, carved out from the sandstone cliff wall, is 40m high, and is remarkably well-preserved, probably because the confined space in which it was built has protected it somewhat from the effects of erosion. The name Khazneh, which means 'treasury' comes from the legend that it was used as a hiding place for treasure. In practice, it seems to have been something between a temple and a tomb, possibly both at once. Behind the impressive facade, a large square room has been carved out of the rock of the cliff. The corners and walls have been squared off meticulously, but no attempt has been made to extend the excavations further or to reproduce the kind of ornate carving of the exterior. This is typical of the tombs in Petra; the interiors are as plain as the exteriors are intricate. From inside, you can look out through the doorway towards the Siq.

The Khazneh faces onto a large open space, floored with soft sand and surrounded by high walls. It is possible, without too much difficulty, to scramble up to a point on the facing wall about fifty metres or so above the ground, and look down on the facade from above .

Surrounding the open space dominated by the Khazneh are other tombs and halls mostly little more than man-made caves carved out from the rock. To the right, the path continues between more widely-spaced rock walls studded with smaller tombs, which are visible as black holes in the rock. A little further on, on the left is the giant semicircle of the amphitheatre, which had seats for eight thousand people. Behind it, the rock wall is pitted with tombs.

Close to the theatre, a flight of steps marks the start of the climb towards the High Place of Sacrifice, while continuing towards the right, the wadi widens out. Ahead lies the centre of the city, while following the cliff face further to the right takes you to the Royal Tombs.

Central Petra

The heart of Petra lies about the open ground of the Wadi Musa. A broad track from the Khazneh leads to the main street of Roman Petra, which is paved with cut stone and lined with columns. Towards the amphitheatre is an open marketplace and a nymphaeum or public fountain. At the opposite end is the Temenos Gateway, which marked the entrance to the courtyard of the Temple of Dushara.

The Temple, popularly known as the Qasr al-Bint Firaun ("The Castle of Pharaoh's Daughter"), was a large free-standing structure, built of massive blocks of yellow sandstone. It has been extensively restored. Dushara was the principal god of the Nabataeans; his partner, the fertility goddess Atagartis, was worshipped at the Temple of the Winged Lions, which faces the Temple of Dushara from a low rise to the north-east of the Temenos gateway. In Roman times, these temples would have been taken over for the worship of the appropriate Roman gods, possibly Apollo and Artemis respectively. In the city's Byzantine period, it is likely that they were also adapted for Christian worship.

Behind the Qasr rises a tall plug of rock, Al-Habis, with Nabataean steps leading to the summit, on which are the remains of a small fort built by the Crusaders. To the north-west a pathway leads off towards El-Deir while to the north is open, sandy ground, covered by dry scrub and the remains of Byzantine walls and other ruins. The eastern side of this area is bounded by the King's Wall, a rock escarpment faced with three imposing tombs.

The Path to El-Deir

The path that leads towards El-Deir crosses open ground to the north of the city centre and starts to ascend into the massif. The path climbs smoothly, sometimes flanked on one side or the other by sandstone outcrops. After a while, some Nabataean stairs can be seen, carved into the rock face of a spur that rises to the right of the path, while a little further on, on the left-hand side, a narrow gully gives access to a small tomb called The Lion Tomb.

The path continues to climb, turning back and forth between rock spurs that are the home of lizards of all sizes and colors . At the steeper points, stone steps reveal the path's Nabataean origins.

The final section of the path climbs more steeply, passes through a narrow cleft between sheer walls of yellow sandstone, and emerges into an open area of white sand. On one side is cluster of eroded sandstone outcrops, some of which have been hollowed out by the combined effects of erosion and human activity. Facing them is a rock wall from which has been carved out another massive triclinium, similar to the Khazneh but larger and cruder. This is known as El-Deir or the Monastery

El-Deir

El-Deir , the Monastery - so-called because it appears to have been used as such during the Byzantine Christian period - resembles the Khazneh, but is larger, cruder and more eroded. The great doorway is around eight metres tall, and the facade as a whole is approximately fifty metres wide by forty-five tall. The whole structure, like the Khazneh, has been carved out of the rock face, and the flanking walls reveal clearly how deep the builders cut into the cliff to create it.

To the left of the monastery, a gap in the rock gives access to the base of a rough staircase that climbs steeply up the rock face. Some minor gymnastics are needed at first, but thereafter the climb becomes easier, and offers a good view of the facade seen at the height of the second level. The rest of Petra lies in the distance, hidden from view behind the bulk of the Monastery and the hills beyond.

The path emerges onto the top of the Monastery itself, just behind the left-hand element of the triclinium. This affords not only a unique view of the urn that crowns the central part of the facade, but also of the surrounding area. Looking down from the circular rim at the base of the urn it is possible to make out the outline of the Monastery's forecourt.

From El-Deir, the only place you can really go is back down the path you came by, and back to the historical city centre.

Christ Redeemer, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil (1931)Welcoming and Openness

Rio de Janeiro "River of January" English is a major city in southeastern Brazil and the capital of the state of Rio de Janeiro. The city was once the capital of Brazil (1763–1960) and of the Portuguese Empire (1808–1821). Commonly known as just Rio, the city is also nicknamed A Cidade Maravilhosa - "The Marvelous City".

It is famous for its spectacular natural setting, its Carnival celebrations, samba and other music, hotel-lined tourist beaches, such as Copacabana and Ipanema, paved with decorated black and cream swirl pattern mosaics, and also for its huge social disparities, shanty towns, violence and drug traffic. Some of the most famous local landmarks in addition to the beaches include the giant statue of Jesus, known as Christ the Redeemer ('Cristo Redentor') atop Corcovado mountain; Sugarloaf mountain (Pão de Açúcar) with its cable car; the Sambódromo, a giant permanent parade stand used during Carnival; and Maracanã stadium, one of the world's largest football stadiums. Rio also boasts the world's largest forest inside an urban area, called Floresta da Tijuca, or 'Tijuca Forest'.[citation needed]

Rio de Janeiro is located at 22 degrees, 54 minutes south latitude, 43 degrees 14 minutes west longitude ( 22°54′S, 43°14′W). The population of the City of Rio de Janeiro is about 6,136,652(2006 IBGE estimate), occupying an area of 1,182.3 square kilometres (456.5 ). The population of the larger metropolitan area is estimated at 11-12 million. It was Brazil's capital until 1960, when Brasília took its place. Residents of the city are known as Cariocas. The city's current mayor (2006) is Cesar Maia. The official song of Rio is "Cidade Maravilhosa" (translated as "Marvelous City").

History

Guanabara Bay was reached by Portuguese explorers in an expedition led by Portuguese explorer Gaspar de Lemos on January 20, 1502; hence Rio de Janeiro, "January River". There is a legend that the mariners named the place thus because they thought the mouth of the bay was actually the mouth of a river, but no experienced sailor would make that mistake. At the time, river was the general word for any large body of water.

An unofficial European presence in the area began not long after. In 1519 when Ferdinand Magellan resupplied his ships in the bay, French smugglers were already using the bay as a post for smuggling brazilwood. When French naval officer Nicolas Durand de Villegaignon arrived in 1555 with a fleet of two ships and 600 soldiers and colonists, he founded the first permanent European settlement in the area. The colony was referred to as "France Antarctique". The colonists consisted of mainly French Huguenots and Swiss Calvinists. Villegaignon left in 1557 after disputes with some of the colonists.

The city was founded on March 1, 1565, by Portuguese knight Estácio de Sá, who called it São Sebastião do Rio de Janeiro 20 (St Sebastian of the January 20th River), in honour of Saint Sebastian (day of death traditionally on January 20). For centuries, the settlement was commonly called São Sebastião – or even 'Saint Sebastian' – instead of the currently popular second half of its name. The city was founded as a base from which to invade the French settlement. They succeeded in 1567 and the French were expelled. Later, São Sebastião was frequently attacked by pirates and privateers, especially by then enemies of Portugal, such as the Netherlands and France.

The exact place of Rio's foundation is at the foot of Pão-de-Açúcar (Sugarloaf Mountain). Later, the whole city was moved within a palisade on top of a hill, imitating the medieval European defence strategy of fortified castles – the place has since then been called Morro do Castelo (Castle Hill). Thus, the city developed from the current centre (Downtown, see below) southwards and then westwards (with large parts built over reclaimed land); an urban movement which continues today.

In the late 16th century the Portuguese crown began treating the village as a strategic location for the Atlantic transit of ships between Brazil, the African colonies and Europe. Fortresses were built and an alliance was formed with nearby native tribes to defend the settlement against invaders – Rio's neighbour, Niterói, for instance, was founded by Araribóia, a Tamoio Indian chief, for defensive purposes. Sugar cane was the first industry in the area. First native, and later African, slaves were used for manual labor. Eventually the industry dwindled as higher quality sugar cane from northern Brazil became more available.

Until early in the 18th century, the city was threatened or invaded by several – mostly French – pirates and buccaneers, such as Jean-François Duclerc and René Duguay-Trouin. After 1720, when the Portuguese found gold and diamonds in the neighbouring captaincy of Minas Gerais, Rio de Janeiro became a much more useful port for exporting wealth than Salvador, Bahia, which is much farther to the north. In 1763, the colonial administration in Portuguese America was moved to Rio. The city remained primarily a colonial capital until 1808, when the Portuguese royal family and most of the associated Lisbon nobles, fleeing from Napoleon's invasion of Portugal, moved to Rio de Janeiro. The kingdom's capital was transferred to the city, which, thus, became the only European capital outside of Europe. As there was no physical space or urban structure to accommodate hundreds of noblemen who arrived suddenly, many inhabitants were simply evicted from their homes.

When Prince Pedro I proclaimed the independence of Brazil in 1822, he decided to keep Rio de Janeiro as the capital of his new empire, but, by then, the city region was gradually losing importance – economic and political – to São Paulo.

Rio continued as the capital of Brazil after 1889, when the monarchy was replaced by a republic.

Copacabana Palace Hotel at Copacabana beach. One of the best known and most luxurious hotels in Rio, it was built in the 1920s

Until the early years of the 20th century the city was largely limited to the neighbourhood now known as the historic Downtown business district (see below), on the mouth of Guanabara Bay. The city's centre of gravity began to shift south and west to the so-called Zona Sul (South Zone) in the early part of the 20th century, when the first tunnel was built under the mountains located between Botafogo and the neighbourhood now known as Copacabana. That beach's natural beauty, combined with the fame of the Copacabana Palace Hotel, the luxury hotel of the Americas in the 1930s, helped Rio to gain the reputation it still holds today as a beachy party town (though, this reputation has been somewhat tarnished in recent years by favela violence resulting from the narcotics trade). Plans for moving the nation's capital city to the territorial centre had been occasionally discussed, and when Juscelino Kubitschek was elected president in 1955, it was partially on the strength of promises to build a new capital. Though many thought that it was just campaign rhetoric, Kubitschek managed to have Brasília built, at great cost, by 1960. On April 21 that year the capital of Brazil was officially moved from Rio de Janeiro to Brasília.

Between 1960 and 1975 Rio was a citystate (such as Vienna (Austria), Hamburg (Germany), or Washington, D.C. (United States)) under the name State of Guanabara (after the bay it borders). However, for administrative and political reasons, a presidential decree known as A Fusão ("The Fusion") removed the city's federative status and merged it with the state of Rio de Janeiro in 1975. Even today, some Cariocas advocate the return of municipal autonomy.

City districts

The city is commonly divided into the historic downtown (Centro); the tourist-friendly South Zone, with world-famous beaches; the industrial North Zone; and the West Zone, with the newer Barra da Tijuca district.

Downtown

(22.905392° S 43.177128° W) Centro (or Downtown in American English) is the historic centre of the city, as well as its financial centre. Sites of interest include the Paço Imperial, built during colonial times to serve as a residence for the Portuguese governors of Brazil; many historic churches, such as the Candelária Church, the colonial Cathedral and the modern-style Rio de Janeiro Cathedral. Around the Cinelândia square there are several landmarks of the Belle Epoque of Rio, such as the Municipal Theatre and the National Library building. Among its several museums, the Museu Nacional de Belas Artes (National Museum of Fine Arts) and the Museu Histórico Nacional (National Historical Museum) are the most important. Other important historical attractions in central Rio include its Passeio Público, an 18th century public garden, as well as the imposing arches of the Arcos da Lapa, a Roman-style aqueduct built around 1750. A bondinho (tram) leaves from a city centre station, crosses the aqueduct (converted to a tram viaduct in 1896) and rambles through the hilly streets of the Santa Teresa neighbourhood nearby.

Downtown remains the heart of the city's business community. Some of the largest companies in Brazil have their head offices here, including Petrobras and Companhia Vale do Rio Doce (the two largest Brazilian corporations).

South Zone

(22.974199° S 43.199444° W) The South Zone of Rio de Janeiro is composed of several districts, amongst which are São Conrado, Leblon, Ipanema, Arpoador, Copacabana and Leme, which compose Rio's famous Atlantic beach coastline. Other districts in the South Zone are Glória, Flamengo, Botafogo and Urca, which border Guanabara Bay and Santa Teresa, Cosme Velho, Laranjeiras, Humaitá, Lagoa, Jardim Botânico and Gávea.

The neighbourhood of Copacabana beach hosts one of the world's most spectacular New Year's Eve parties ("Reveillon"), as more than two million revellers crowd onto the sands to watch the fireworks display. As of 2001, the fireworks have been launched from boats, to improve the safety of the event.

To the north of Leme, and at the entrance to Guanabara Bay, is the district of Urca and the Sugarloaf Mountain ('Pão de Açúcar'), whose name describes the famous mountain rising out of the sea.

The summit can be reached via a two-stage cable car trip from Praia Vermelha, with the intermediate stop on Morro da Urca. It offers views second only to Corcovado mountain.
One of the highest hills in the city is the 842 metres (2,762 ft) high Pedra da Gávea (Crow's nest Rock) near the botanical gardens. On the top of its summit is a huge rock formation (some, such as Erich von Däniken in his 1973 book, "In Search of Ancient Gods", claim it to be a sculpture) resembling a sphinx-like, bearded head that is visible for many kilometers around.

Hang gliding is a popular activity on the nearby Pedra Bonita (Beautiful Rock). After a short flight, gliders land on the Praia do Pepino beach in São Conrado. Since 1961, the Tijuca Forest ("Floresta da Tijuca"), the largest city-surrounded urban forest and the second largest urban forest in the world, has been a National Park. The largest urban forest in the world is the Floresta da Pedra Branca (White Rock Forest), which is also located in the city of Rio de Janeiro . The Catholic University in Rio (Pontifícia Universidade Católica do Rio de Janeiro or PUC-Rio) is located at the edge of the forest, in the Gávea district. The 1984 film Blame it on Rio was filmed nearby, with the rental house used by the story's characters sitting at the edge of the forest on a mountain overlooking the famous beaches.

North Zone

International Airport of Rio de Janeiro, located in the North Zone.
The North Zone of Rio is home to the Maracanã stadium, once the world's highest capacity football (soccer) venue, able to hold nearly 180,000 people, as it did the World Cup final of 1950. In modern times its capacity has been reduced to conform with modern safety regulations and the stadium has introduced seating for all fans. Currently undergoing renovation, it only has the capacity for 95,000 fans; it will eventually hold around 120,000 people. Maracanã will be the site for the Opening and Closing Ceremonies and football competition of the 2007 Pan-American Games.

Besides the Maracanã, the North Zone of Rio also holds other tourist and historical attractions, such as 'Manguinhos', the home of Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, a centenarian biomedical research institution with a main building fashioned like a Moorish palace, and the beautiful Quinta da Bo Vista, the park where the historical old Imperial Palace is located. Nowadays, the palace hosts the National Museum, specialising in Natural History, Archaeology and Ethnology.

The International Airport of Rio de Janeiro (Galeão – Antônio Carlos Jobim International Airport, named after the famous Brazilian musician "Tom" Jobim), the main campus of the Federal University of Rio de Janeiro at the Fundão Island, and the Governador Island are also located in the Northern part of Rio. Some of the main neighbourhoods of Rio's north zone are Tijuca, which shares the Tijuca Forest with the South Zone, and Grajaú, Vila Isabel, Méier, São Cristovão, Olaria among others.

West Zone

The West Zone is the region furthest from the centre of Rio de Janeiro. It includes Barra da Tijuca, Jacarepaguá, Recreio dos Bandeirantes, Vargem Grande, Vargem Pequena, Realengo, Padre Miguel, Bangu, Campo Grande, Jardim Sulacap, and Santa Cruz. Neighbouring districts within the West Zone reveal stark differences between social classes. The area has industrial zones, but some agricultural areas still remain in its wide area.

Westwards from the older zones is Barra da Tijuca, a flat expanse of formerly undeveloped coastal land, which is currently experiencing a wave of new construction. It remains an area of accelerated growth, attracting some of the richer sectors of the population as well as luxury companies. High rise flats and sprawling shopping centres give the area a far more American feel than the crowded city centre. The urban planning of the area, made in the late 1960s, resembles that of United States suburbs, though mixing zones of single-family houses with residential skyscrapers. The beaches of Barra da Tijuca are also popular with the city's residents. Barra da Tijuca is the home of Pan-American Village for the 2007 Pan American Games. Barra da Tijuca now has a tiny, but growing movement for separating Barra from the city of Rio and making Barra a new city.

Beyond the neighbourhoods of Barra da Tijuca and Jacarepaguá, another district that has exhibited economic growth is Campo Grande. Some sports competitions in the Pan-American Games of 2007 will be held in the Miécimo da Silva Sports Centre, nicknamed the 'Algodão' (Cotton) Gymnasium, and others in the Ítalo del Cima Stadium, in Campo Grande.

Climate

Rio has a Tropical climate. The average monthly temperatures are shown below, though it is not unusual to reach 40°C in the Summer in inland areas of the city, but in the main tourist areas (south zone, where the beaches are located), the temperature is moderated by the cool seabreezes from the ocean, even during the warmest months. The average mimimum temperature is 21°C, and the average maximum temperature is 27°C. The average yearly precipitation is 1173 mm.

Social conditions

Entrenched between some of the richer areas of Rio de Janeiro, the Vidigal favela is testimony to high economic inequality within Brazil.

Rio is a city of contrast: there are enormous disparities between rich and poor. Although the city clearly ranks among the world's major metropolises, a significant proportion (15%)[citatio needed] of the city's 6.5 million inhabitants lives in poverty. The worst of the poorer areas are the slums and shanty towns known as 'favelas'; often crowded onto the hillsides, where sturdy buildings are difficult to build, and accidents, mainly from heavy rainfall, are frequent. A unique aspect of Rio's favelas is their very close proximity to the city's wealthiest districts. Upper-class neighbourhoods such as Ipanema and Copacabana are squeezed in between the beach and the hills, the latter of which are covered with poor neighbourhoods. Bad public education, a poor health system, strong unemployment and weak laws combined with the saturation of the penitentiary system contribute to the overall poverty and social injustice of the favelas.

Violence

Rio has a reputation for violence with about 80 victims killed every week in assaults, stray bullets and narcoterrorism.This situation results from drug-traffic warfare in which police fight against outlaws.

Ethnic groups

Most of Rio de Janeiro's population is of Portuguese descent, with a large number of people of African descent, and mulattos of mixed Portuguese and African descent. Other important ethnic groups are present in the city, such as Germans, Italians, Spaniards, Arabs, Jews, Asians (mostly Koreans and Japanese) and mixed Amerindians.
The population is composed of people of White European descent (52.5%), of mixed-race descent (35.6%), of Black African descent (11.4%), of Asian or Amerindian descent (0.4%).

Music

The official song of Rio de Janeiro is "Cidade Maravilhosa", which means "marvelous city". The song is considered the "civic anthem" of Rio, and is always the favourite song during Rio's Carnival in February.

Rio was eternalized in the super smash hit song "Garota de Ipanema" (The Girl from Ipanema) composed by Antonio Carlos Jobim and recognized worldwide and recorded by Astrud Gilberto and João Gilberto, Frank Sinatra, and Ella Fitzgerald. This is also the main key song of the Bossa Nova, a musical genre that was born in Rio. A genre unique to Rio and Brazil as a whole is Funk Carioca, a youth phenomenon practiced in usually violent Funk Balls in the poorer areas of greater Rio.

Carnaval

The carnaval is an annual celebration in Brazil held 40 days before Easter and marks the beginning of Lent. Rio de Janeiro has many Carnaval choices, including the famous Escolas de Samba (Samba schools) parades in the sambódromo exhibition centre and the popular 'blocos de carnaval', which parade in almost every corner of the city. The most famous ones are the following:

Cordão do Bola Preta: Parades in the centre of the city. It is one of the most traditional carnavals. In 2006, it gathered 200,000 people in one day.

Suvaco do Cristo: Band that parades in the Botanic Garden, directly below the Redeemer statue's arm. The name, in English, translates as 'Christ's armpit', and was chosen for that reason.

Carmelitas: Band that was supposedly created by nuns, but in fact it is just a theme chosen by the band. It parades in the hills of Santa Teresa, which have very nice views.

Simpatia é Quase Amor: One of the most popular parades in Ipanema. Translates as 'Friendliness is almost love'.

Banda de Ipanema: The most traditional in Ipanema. It attracts a wide range of revellers, including families and a wide spectrum of the gay population (notably spectacular drag queens).

Cultural events in Rio de Janeiro

Rio de Janeiro is among the biggest cities in South America, but the city is more widely renowned for the various cultural celebrations that are held there every year. The most popular of these is the Carnaval, held two weeks before the traditional Christian fasting of Lent.

People from all over Brazil and from all parts of the world come to Rio to take part and witness the extravaganza. The Carnival brings a lot of people, good food, colour and of course the Samba dance. The celebration of Carnival ends on "Mardi Gras" Tuesday.

Apart from the Carnival, New Year is also a big deal in Rio and is also one of the other major festivals. It's celebrated with several concerts and firework displays all around Rio, the largest one being in Copacabana beach. People wear white clothes, and some of them make offerings to a Candomblé deity called Iemanjá.

Rio also has one of the world's most talked-about nightlife. Rio has a lot of nightclubs where the rich enjoy themselves and party the night away. Clubs like Baronneti, Nuth and Catwalk are some of the country's best known and frequented by celebrities such as Ronaldo, Calvin Klein, Mick Jagger and Naomi Campbell.

Sport

More notable sports events in Rio include the MotoGP Brazilia Grand Prix and the World Beach volleyball finals. Jacarepaguá was the place of Formula One Brazilian Grand Prix into 1978-1990 and the Champ Car event into 1996-1999. WCT/WQS Surf championships were contested on the beaches from 1985-2001. The city is building a new stadium near the Maracanã, to hold 45,000 people. It will be named after Brazilian ex-FIFA president João Havelange.

Rio de Janeiro was an applicant city for the 2012 Summer Olympics but failed to make the shortlist of official candidate cities. Copacabana beach would have been the site of the triathlon and beach volleyball, while yachting competitions would have been held in Guanabara Bay. On September 2006, it was announced that Rio would bid for 2016 Summer Olympics. Depending on quantity and quality of bids that the IOC will receive from other NOCs, the IOC will probably announce a shortlist of official candidate cities (Rio was cut at this stage for the 2012 Games) in early 2008, and conduct voting for the host city in 2009.

Sports are a very popular pastime in Rio de Janeiro. The most popular is futebol (soccer). Rio de Janeiro is home to four traditional Brazilian football clubs: Botafogo, Flamengo, Fluminense and Vasco.

Other popular sports are beach football, beach volleyball, surfing, kitesurfing, hang gliding, motor racing, jiu-jitsu, recreational sailing, and competitive rowing. The Brazilian dance/sport/martial art capoeira is also popular. Another sport that is highly popular on the beaches of Rio is called "frescobol" a type of beach tennis.

Rio de Janeiro is also a paradise for rock climbers, with hundreds of routes all over the town, ranging from easy boulders to highly technical big wall climbs, all inside the city. The most famous, Rio's granite mountain, the Sugar Loaf (Pão de Açúcar), is an example, with routes from the easy 3rd grade (American 5.4, French 3) to the extremely difficult 9th grade (5.13/8b), up to 280 metres.

Hang gliding in Rio de Janeiro started in the mid 1970s and quickly proved to be perfectly suited for this town, because of its geography: steep mountains encounter the Atlantic Ocean, which provide excellent take-off locations and great landing zones on the beach. Starting with amateur flights, this activity soon turned into a profitable industry of tandem hang gliding with some very experienced pilots at a cost for a ride around US$100. In the Summer, between December and March, booking in advance is recommended.

Fishing is a very popular activity in Brazil. In Rio de Janeiro, one can expect to catch a plethora of famous Brazilian copperfish, known as peixe de cobre. Many markets sell peixes de cobre and these fish are quite popular for traditional meals.

Transportation

In Rio de Janeiro, buses are the main means of mass transportation. There are nearly 440 municipal bus lines serving over four million passengers each day, in addition to intercity lines. Although cheap and frequent, Rio's transportation policy has been moving towards trains and subway in order to reduce traffic jams and increase capacity.

Rio de Janeiro has two subway lines (Metro Rio) and several commuter rail lines. Future plans include building a third subway line to Niterói and São Gonçalo, including an underwater tunnel beneath Guanabara Bay to supplement the ferry service currently there.

In Brazil, most interstate transportation is done by road. A large terminal for long-distance buses is in the Santo Cristo neighborhood of Rio de Janeiro. There are also two port facilities for cargo and passenger ships (Rio de Janeiro and Sepetiba port).

Airports

The City of Rio de Janeiro has five airports.

Galeão - Antônio Carlos Jobim International Airport: used for all the international flights and some long-haul domestic flights;

Santos Dumont Regional Airport: Rio de Janeiro's first airport, and formerly the International Airport. It is considered one of the best set airports in whole world because of its location between Sugar Loaf, Corcovado, the Aterro do Flamengo, and Guanabara Bay. Today it is used by the São Paulo – Rio de Janeiro Air Shuttle Service and some flights inside the Rio de Janeiro state, especially to oil-producing cities in the north.

Aeroporto de Jacarepaguá: In the Barra da Tijuca district. It is currently used by Aeroclube do Brasil (Brasil Flying Club) with small aircraft but is planned to be used for the Rio de Janeiro - São Paulo Air Shuttle Service since it is just inside Barra, the city's fastest-growing district.

Campo dos Afonsos: Military airport, where the Brazilian Air Force presents its aerobatic shows. It also holds the MUSAL (Museu Aero-Espacial), one of the largest aviation museums in Latin America.

Santa Cruz Air Base: Military airport.

Machu Picchu, Cuzco, Peru (1460-1470) Community and Dedication

Chichen Itza from Yucatec Maya chich'en itza', "At the mouth of the well of the Itza" is a large pre-Columbian archaeological site built by the Maya civilization located in the northern center of the Yucatán Peninsula, present-day Mexico.

Chichen Itza was a major regional center in the northern Maya lowlands from the Late Classic through the Terminal Classic and into the early portion of the Early Postclassic period. The site exhibits a multitude of architectural styles, from what is called “Mexicanized” and reminiscent of styles seen in central Mexico to the Puuc style found among the Puuc Maya of the northern lowlands. The presence of central Mexican styles was once thought to have been representative of direct migration or even conquest from central Mexico, but most contemporary interpretations view the presence of these non-Maya styles more as the result of cultural diffusion.

Archaeological data, such as evidence of burning at a number of important structures and architectural complexes, suggest that Chichen Itza's collapse was violent. Following the decline of Chichen Itza's hegemony, regional power in the Yucatán shifted to a new center at Mayapan.
According to the American Anthropological Association, the actual ruins of Chich'en Itza are federal property, and the site’s stewardship is maintained by Mexico’s National Institute of Anthropology and History (Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia, INAH). The land under the monuments, however, is privately-owned by the Barbachano family.

Name and orthography

The Maya name "Chich'en Itza" means "At the mouth of the well of the Itza ". Although this was the usual name for the site in pre-Columbian times, it is also referred to in the ancient chronicles as Uucyabnal, meaning "Seven Great Rulers".

The name is often represented as Chichén Itzá in Spanish and other languages to show that both parts of the name are stressed on their final syllables. In the Yucatec Maya language (still in use in the area, and written with the Roman alphabet since the 16th century) this stress follows the normal rules of the language, and so it is written without diacritics. Both forms are attested in literature on the subject, including in scholarly works. Other references prefer to employ a more rigorous orthography, using Chich'en Itza. This form preserves the phonemeic distinction between [ ch' ] and [ ch ], since the base word ch'en meaning "well (of water)" begins with a glottalized affricate and not a voiceless (non-glottalized) one .

History of Chich'en Itza

As the northern Yucatán has no above-ground rivers, the fact that three natural sink holes (cenotes) providing plentiful water year round at Chichen made it attractive for settlement. Two of these cenotes still exist today; the "Cenote of Sacrifice" is the more famous of the two, and it was sacred to worshipers of the Maya rain god Chaac. Various objects and materials, such as jade, pottery, and incense, were thrown into the cenote as offerings to Chaac. It is claimed by some (mainly tour guides) that occasionally, especially during times of intense drought, human sacrifices were offered into the well. Diplomat Edward Herbert Thompson dredged the Sacred Cenote in 1904, claiming to have uncovered human remains and sacrificial artifacts.[citation needed] There is, however, no confirmation of this, and archaeological dredging of the cenote does not support these assertions.

Ascension

Chichen Itza rose to regional prominence towards the end of the Early Classic period (or, roughly 600 AD). It was, however, towards the end of the Late Classic and into the early part of the Terminal Classic that the site became a major regional capitol, centralizing and dominating political, sociocultural, economic, and ideological life in the northern Maya lowlands. The ascension of Chichen Itza roughly correlates with the decline and fragmentation of the major centers of the southern Maya lowlands, such as Tikal.

Some ethnohistoric sources claim that in about 987 a Toltec king named Quetzalcoatl arrived here with an army from central Mexico, and (with local Maya allies) made Chichen Itza his capital, and a second Tula. The art and architecture from this period shows an interesting mix of Maya and Toltec styles. However, the recent re-dating of Chichen Itza's decline (see below) indicates that Chichen Itza is largely a Late/Terminal Classic site, while Tula remains an Early Postclassic site (thus reversing the direction of possible influence).

Political organization

Unlike previous Maya polities of the Early Classic, Chichen Itza was not governed by an individual ruler or a single dynastic lineage. Instead, according to Sharer and Traxler (2006:581), the city’s political organization was structured by a "multepal" system, which is characterized as rulership through council. The council was comprised of members of elite ruling lineages.

Economy

Chichen Itza was a major economic power in the northern Maya lowlands during its apogee. Participating in the water-borne circum-peninsular trade route through its port site of Isla Cerritos, Chichen Itza was able to obtain locally unavailable resources from distant areas such as central Mexico (obsidian) and southern Central America (gold).

Decline of Chichen Itza

The Maya chronicles record that in 1221 a revolt and civil war broke out, and archeological evidence seemed to confirm that the wooden roofs of the great market and the Temple of the Warriors were burned at about this date. Chichen Itza went into decline as rulership over Yucatán shifted to Mayapan.

This long-held chronology, however, has been drastically revised in recent years. As archaeologists improve their knowledge of changes in regional ceramics, and more radiocarbon dates arise out of ongoing work at Chichen Itza, the end of this Maya capital is now being pushed back over 200 years. Archaeological data now indicates that Chichen Itza fell by around AD 1000. This leaves an enigmatic gap between the fall of Chichen Itza and its successor, Mayapan. Ongoing research at the site of Mayapan may help resolve this chronological conundrum.

While the site itself was never completely abandoned, the population declined and no major new constructions were built following its political collapse. The Sacred Cenote, however, remained a place of pilgrimage.

In 1531 Spanish Conquistador Francisco de Montejo claimed Chichén Itzá and intended to make it the capital of Spanish Yucatán, but after a few months a native Maya revolt drove Montejo and his forces from the land.

The site

The site contains many fine stone buildings in various states of preservation; the buildings were formerly used as temples, palaces, stages, markets, baths, and ballcourts.

Temple of the Warriors

The Temple of the Warriors complex consists of a large stepped pyramid fronted and flanked by rows of carved columns depicting warriors. This complex is analogous to Temple B at the Toltec capital of Tula, and indicates some form of cultural contact between the two regions. The one at Chichen Itza, however, was constructed on a larger scale. At the top of the stairway on the pyramid’s summit (and leading towards the entrance of the pyramid’s temple) is a Chac Mool.
Near the Warriors is a large plaza surrounded by pillars called "The Great Market."

Ballcourt

Seven courts for playing the Mesoamerican ballgame have been found in Chichén, but the one about 150 meters to the north-west of the Castillo is by far the most impressive. It is the largest ballcourt in ancient Mesoamerica. It measures 166 by 68 meters (545 by 232 feet). The sides of the interior of the ballcourt are lined with sculpted panels depicting teams of ball players, with the captain of the losing team being decapitated.

Built into one of the exterior walls of the ballcourt is the Temple of the Jaguar, which features another jaguar throne -- since this one was not buried for a thousand years, its red paint and jade spots are long since gone.

Behind this platform is a walled inscription which depicts a tzompantli (rack of impaled human skulls) in relief.

High Priest's Temple

This step-pyramid temple is a smaller version of El Castillo; the name comes from an elite burial discovered by early excavator E. H. Thompson.

Las Monjas

One of the more notable structures at Chichen Itza is a complex of Terminal Classic buildings constructed in the Puuc architectural style. The Spanish nicknamed this complex Las Monjas ("The Nuns" or "The Nunnery") but was actually a governmental palace. Just to the east is a small temple (nicknamed La Iglesia, "The Church") decorated with elaborate masks of the rain god Chaac.

A number of other structures are near the "Monjas" complex. These include:
"Akab' Dzib" (Maya for dark or obscure writing), a palace with hieroglyphic inscriptions
"The Red House"
"The House of the Deer"

El Caracol

To the north of Las Monjas is a round building on a large square platform nicknamed El Caracol or "the snail" for the stone spiral staircase inside. This structure was an observatory with its doors aligned to view the vernal equinox, the Moon's greatest northern and southern declinations, and other astronomical events sacred to Kukulcan, the feathered-serpent god of the wind and learning. The Maya used the shadows inside the room cast from the angle of the sun hitting the doorway to tell when the solstices would occur. Placed around the edge of El Caracol are large rock cups that they filled with water and would watch the reflection of the stars in the water to help determine their complex, but extremely accurate calendar system.[citation needed]

Old Chichen

"Old Chichen" is the nickname for a group of structures to the south of the central site. It includes the Initial Series Group, the Phallic Temple, the Platform of the Great Turtle, the Temple of the Owls, and the Temple of the Monkeys.

Other structures

Chichen Itza also has a variety of other structures densely packed in the ceremonial center of about 5 km² (2 mile²) and several outlying subsidiary sites.

Caves of Balankanche

The Caves of Balankanche are a network of sacred caves a short distance from the center of Chichen. In the caves, a large selection of ancient pottery and idols may be seen still in the positions where they were left in Pre-Columbian times.

Archaeological investigations

Chichén Itzá entered the popular imagination in 1843 with the book Incidents of Travel in Yucatan by John Lloyd Stephens (with illustrations by Frederick Catherwood). The book recounted Stephens’ visit to Yucatan and his tour of Maya cities, including Chichén Itzá. The book prompted other explorations of the city. In 1860, Desire Charnay surveyed Chichén Itzá and took numerous photographs that he published in Cités et ruines américaines (1863).

In 1875, Augustus Le Plongeon and his wife Alice Dixon Le Plongeon visited Chichén, and excavated a statue of a figure on its back, knees drawn up, upper torso raised on its elbows with a plate on its stomach. Augustus Le Plongeon called it “Chaacmol” (later renamed “Chac Mool,” which has been the term to describe all types of this statuary found in Mesoamerica). Teobert Maler and Alfred Maudslay explored Chichén in the 1880s and both spent several weeks at the site and took extensive photographs. Maudslay published the first long form description of Chichén Itzá in his book, Biologia Centrali-Americana.

In 1894 the United States Consul to Yucatán, Edward H. Thompson purchased the Hacienda Chichen, which included the ruins of Chichen Itzá. For 30 years, Thompson explored the ancient city. His discoveries included the earliest dated carving upon a lintel in the Temple of the Initial Series and the excavation of several graves in the Ossario (High Priest’s Temple). Thompson is most famous for dredging the Cenote Sagrado (Sacred Cenote) from 1904 to 1910, where he recovered artifacts of gold, copper and carved jade, as well as the first-ever examples of what were believed to be pre-Columbian Maya cloth and wooden weapons. Thompson shipped the bulk of the artifacts to the Peabody Museum at Harvard University.

In 1913, archaeologist Sylvanus G. Morley persuaded the Carnegie Institution to fund an extensive archaeological project at Chichén Itzá, which included mapping the ruins and restoring several of the monuments. The Mexican Revolution and the following government instability prevented the Carnegie from beginning work until 1924. Over the course of 10 years, the Carnegie researchers excavated and restored the Temple of Warriors and the Caracol. At the same time, the Mexican government excavated and restored El Castillo and the Great Ball Court.

In 1926, the Mexican government charged Edward Thompson with theft, claiming he stole the artifacts from the Cenote Sagrado and smuggled them out of the country. The government seized the Hacienda Chichén. Thompson, who was in the United States at the time, never returned to Yucatan. He wrote about his research and investigations of the Maya culture in a book People of the Serpent published in 1932. He died in New Jersey in 1935. In 1944 the Mexican Supreme Court ruled that Thompson had broken no laws and returned Chichén Itzá to his heirs. The Thompsons sold the hacienda to tourism pioneer Fernando Barbachano Peon, and his heirs own the property today.

There have been two later expeditions to recover artifacts from the Cenote Sagrado, in 1961 and 1967. The first was sponsored by the National Geographic, and the second by private interests. Both projects were supervised by Mexico's National Institute of Anthropology and History (INAH). INAH has conducted an ongoing effort to excavate and restore other monuments in the archaeological zone, including the Ossario, Akab D’zib, and several buildings in Chichén Viejo (Old Chichen).

Tourism

Tourism has been a factor at Chichen Itza for more than a century. John Lloyd Stephens, who popularized the Maya Yucatan in the public’s imagination with his book Incidents of Travel in Yucatan, inspired many to make a pilgrimage to Chichén Itzá. Even before the book was published, Benjamin Norman and Baron Emmanuel de Friederichsthal traveled to Chichen after meeting Stephens, and both published the results of what they found.

After Edward Thompson in 1894 purchased the Hacienda Chichén, which included Chichen Itza, he received a constant stream of visitors. In 1910 he announced his intention to construct a hotel on his property, but abandoned those plans, probably because of the Mexican Revolution.

In the early 1920s, a group of Yucatecans, lead by writer/photographer Francisco Gomez Rul, began working toward expanding tourism to Yucatan. They urged Governor Felipe Carrillo Puerto to build roads to the more famous monuments, including Chichen Itza. In 1923, Governor Carrillo Puerto officially opened the highway to Chichen Itza. Gomez Rul published one of the first guidebooks to Yucatan and the ruins.

Gomez Rul’s son-in-law, Fernando Barbachano Peon (a grandnephew of former Yucatan Governor Miguel Barbachano), started Yucatan’s first official tourism business in the early 1920s. He began by meeting passengers that arrived by steamship to Progreso, the port north of Merida, and persuading them to spend a week in Yucatan, after which they would catch the next steamship to their next destination. In his first year Barbachano Peon reportedly was only able to convince seven passengers to leave the ship and join him on a tour. In the mid-1920s Barbachano Peon persuaded Edward Thompson to sell five acres of property next to Chichen for a hotel. In 1927, the Mayaland Hotel opened, just north of the Hacienda Chichén, which had been taken over by the Carnegie Institution.

In 1944, Barbachano Peon purchased all of the Hacienda Chichén, including Chichen Itza, from the heirs of Edward Thompson. Around that same time the Carnegie completed its work at Chichen Itza and abandoned the Hacienda Chichén, which Barbachano turned into another seasonal hotel.

In 1977, ownership of the monuments at Chichen Itza was given to the federal government. There were now hundreds, if not thousands of visitors every year to Chichen Itza, and more were expected with the development of Cancun resort area to the east.

In the 1980s, Chichen Itza began to receive an influx of visitors on the day of the spring equinox. Today several thousand show up to see the light-and-shadow effect on the Temple of Kukulcan in which the feathered serpent god supposedly can be seen to crawl down the side of the pyramid.

Chichen Itza is today a World Heritage Site and is the second most visited of Mexico’s archaeological sites. Many visitors to the popular tourist resort of Cancún make a day trip to Chichen Itza, usually with time to view only a portion of the site.

Over the past several years, INAH, which manages the site, has been closing monuments to public access. The most recent was El Castillo, which was closed after the death of a San Diego woman in 2006.

Colosseum, Rome, Italy (70 - 82 A.D.) Joy and Suffering

The Colosseum or Coliseum, originally the Flavian Amphitheatre (Latin: Amphitheatrum Flavium, Italian Anfiteatro Flavio or Colosseo), is a giant amphitheatre in the centre of the city of Rome, Italy. Originally capable of seating around 50,000 spectators, it was used for gladiatorial contests and public spectacles. It was built on a site just east of the Roman Forum, with construction starting between 70 and 72 AD under the emperor Vespasian. The amphitheatre, the largest ever built in the Roman Empir, was completed in 80 AD under Titus, with further modifications being made during Domitian's reign.

The Colosseum remained in use for nearly 500 years with the last recorded games being held there as late as the 6th century — well after the traditional date of the fall of Rome in 476. As well as the traditional gladiatorial games, many other public spectacles were held there, such as mock sea battles, animal hunts, executions, re-enactments of famous battles, and dramas based on Classical mythology. The building eventually ceased to be used for entertainment in the early medieval era. It was later reused for such varied purposes as housing, workshops, quarters for a religious order, a fortress, a quarry and a Christian shrine.

Although it is now in a severely ruined condition due to damage caused by earthquakes and stone-robbers, the Colosseum has long been seen as an iconic symbol of Imperial Rome and is one of the finest surviving examples of Roman architecture. It is one of modern Rome's most popular tourist attractions and still has close connections with the Roman Catholic Church and the Pope leads a torchlit "Way of the Cross" procession to the amphitheatre each Good Friday.

History

Ancient

Construction of the Colosseum began under the rule of the Emperor Vespasian in around 70–72. The site chosen was a flat area on the floor of a low valley between the Caelian, Esquiline and Palatine Hills, through which a canalised stream ran. By the 2nd century BC the area was densely inhabited. It was devastated by the Great Fire of Rome in AD 64, following which Nero seized much of the area to add to his personal domain. He built the grandiose Domus Aurea on the site, in front of which he created an artificial lake surrounded by pavillions, gardens and porticoes. The existing Aqua Claudia aqueduct was extended to supply water to the area and the gigantic bronze Colossus of Nero was set up nearby at the entrance to the Domus Aurea.The area was transformed under Vespasian and his successors. Although the Colossus was preserved, much of the Domus Aurea was torn down. The lake was filled in and the land reused as the location for the new Flavian Amphitheatre. Gladiatorial schools and other support buildings were constructed nearby within the former grounds of the Domus Aurea. According to a reconstructed inscription found on the site, "the emperor Vespasian ordered this new amphitheatre to be erected from his general's share of the booty." This is thought to refer to the vast quantity of treasure seized by the Romans following their victory in the Great Jewish Revolt in 70. The Colosseum can be thus interpreted as a great triumphal monument built in the Roman tradition of celebrating great victories. Vespasian's decision to build the Colosseum on the site of Nero's lake can also be seen as a populist gesture of returning to the people an area of the city which Nero had appropriated for his own use. In contrast to many other amphitheatres, which were located on the outskirts of a city, the Colosseum was constructed in the city centre; in effect, placing it both literally and symbolically at the heart of Rome.

The Colosseum had been completed up to the third story by the time of Vespasian's death in 79. The top level was finished and the building inaugurated by his son, Titus, in 80. Dio Cassius recounts that over 9,000 wild animals were killed during the inaugural games of the amphitheatre. The building was remodelled further under Vespasian's younger son, the newly-designated Emperor Domitian, who constructed the hypogeum, a series of underground tunnels used to house animals and slaves. He also added a gallery to the top of the Colosseum to increase its seating capacity.

In 217, the Colosseum was badly damaged by a major fire (caused by lightning, according to Dio Cassius) which destroyed the wooden upper levels of the amphitheatre's interior. It was not fully repaired until about 240 and underwent further repairs in 250 or 252 and again in 320. An inscription records the restoration of various parts of the Colosseum under Theodosius II and Valentinian III (reigned 425–450), possibly to repair damage caused by a major earthquake in 443; more work followed in 484 and 508. The arena continued to be used for contests well into the 6th century, with gladiatorial fights last mentioned around 435. Animal hunts continued until at least 523.

Medieval

The Colosseum underwent several radical changes of use during the medieval period. By the late 6th century a small church had been built into the structure of the amphitheatre, though this apparently did not confer any particular religious significance on the building as a whole. The arena was converted into a cemetery. The numerous vaulted spaces in the arcades under the seating were converted into housing and workshops, and are recorded as still being rented out as late as the 12th century. Around 1200 the Frangipani family took over the Colosseum and fortified it, apparently using it as a castle.

Severe damage was inflicted on the Colosseum by the great earthquake of 1349, causing the outer south side to collapse. Much of the tumbled stone was reused to build palaces, churches, hospitals and other buildings elsewhere in Rome. A religious order moved into the northern third of the Colosseum in the mid-14th century and continued to inhabit it until as late as the early 19th century. The interior of the amphitheatre was extensively stripped of stone, which was reused elsewhere, or (in the case of the marble facade) was burned to make quicklime.The bronze clamps which held the stonework together were pried or hacked out of the walls, leaving numerous pockmarks which still scar the building today.

Modern

Interior of the Colosseum, Rome. Thomas Cole, 1832. Note the Stations of the Cross around the arena and the extensive vegetation, both removed later in the 19th century.
During the 16th and 17th century, Church officials sought a productive role for the vast derelict hulk of the Colosseum. Pope Sixtus V (1585–1590) planned to turn the building into a wool factory to provide employment for Rome's prostitutes, though this proposal fell through with his premature death. In 1671 Cardinal Altieri authorized its use for bullfights; a public outcry caused the idea to be hastily abandoned.

In 1749, Pope Benedict XIV endorsed as official Church policy the view that the Colosseum was a sacred site where early Christians had been martyred. He forbade the use of the Colosseum as a quarry and consecrated the building to the Passion of Christ and installed Stations of the Cross, declaring it sanctified by the blood of the Christian martyrs who perished there (see Christians and the Colosseum). Later popes initiated various stabilization and restoration projects, removing the extensive vegetation which had overgrown the structure and threatened to damage it further. The facade was reinforced with triangular brick wedges in 1807 and 1827, and the interior was repaired in 1831, 1846 and in the 1930s. The arena substructure was partly excavated in 1810–1814 and 1874 and was fully exposed under Mussolini in the 1930s.

The Colosseum is today one of Rome's most popular tourist attractions, receiving millions of visitors annually. The effects of pollution and general deterioration over time prompted a major restoration programme carried out between 1993 and 2000, at a cost of 40 billion Italian lira ($19.3m / €20.6m at 2000 prices). In recent years it has become a symbol of the international campaign against capital punishment, which was abolished in Italy in 1948. Several anti–death penalty demonstrations took place in front of the Colosseum in 2000. Since that time, as a gesture against the death penalty, the local authorities of Rome change the color of the Colosseum's night time illumination from white to gold whenever a person condemned to the death penalty anywhere in the world gets their sentence commuted or is released.

Due to the ruined state of the interior, it is impractical to use the Colosseum to host large events; only a few hundred spectators can be accommodated in temporary seating. However, much larger concerts have been held just outside, using the Colosseum as a backdrop. Performers who have played at the Colosseum in recent years have included Ray Charles (May 2002), Paul McCartney (May 2003) and Elton John (September 2005).
On July 7th, 2007, the Colosseum was voted as one of New Open World Corporation's New Seven Wonders of the World.

Name

The Colosseum's name has long been believed to be derived from a colossal statue of Nero nearby. This statue was later remodeled by Nero's successors into the likeness of Helios (Sol) or Apollo, the sun god, by adding the appropriate solar crown. Nero's head was also replaced several times and substituted with the heads of succeeding emperors. Despite its pagan links, the statue remained standing well into the medieval era and was credited with magical powers. It came to be seen as an iconic symbol of the permanence of Rome.

In the 8th century, the Venerable Bede (c. 672–735) wrote a famous epigram celebrating the symbolic significance of the statue: Quandiu stabit coliseus, stabit et Roma; quando cadit coliseus, cadet et Roma; quando cadet Roma, cadet et mundus ("as long as the Colossus stands, so shall Rome; when the Colossus falls, Rome shall fall; when Rome falls, so falls the world").This is often mistranslated to refer to the Colosseum rather than the Colossus (as in, for instance, Byron's poem Childe Harold's Pilgrimage). However, at the time that Bede wrote, the masculine noun coliseus was applied to the statue rather than to what was still known as the Flavian amphitheatre.

The Colossus did eventually fall, having probably been pulled down to reuse its bronze. By the year 1000 the name "Colosseum" (a neuter noun) had been coined to refer to the amphitheatre. The statue itself was largely forgotten and only its base survives, situated between the Colosseum and the nearby Temple of Venus and Roma.

The name was further corrupted to Coliseum during the Middle Ages. Both names are frequently used in modern English, but Flavian Amphitheatre is generally unknown. In Italy, the amphitheatre is still known as il colosseo, and other Romance languages have come to use similar forms such as le colisée (French), el coliseo (Spanish) and o coliseu (Portuguese).

Physical description

Exterior

The Colosseum measures 48 metres (157 ft / 165 Roman feet) high, 189 metres (615 ft / 640 Roman feet) long, and 156 metres (510 ft / 528 Roman feet) wide, with a base area of 6 acres. Unlike earlier amphitheatres, it was an entirely free-standing structure, constructed on flat ground rather than being built into an existing hillside or natural depression. Its outer wall originally measured 545 metres (1,788 ft / 1,835 Roman feet) and is estimated to have required over 100,000 cubic meters (3,531,466 ft³) of travertine stone held together by 300 tons of iron clamps. However, it has suffered extensive damage over the centuries, with large segments having collapsed following earthquakes. The north side of the perimeter wall is still standing; the distinctive triangular brick wedges at each end are modern additions, having been constructed in the early 19th century to shore up the wall. The remainder of the present-day exterior of the Colosseum is in fact the original interior wall.

The surviving part of the outer wall's monumental façade comprises three stories of superimposed arcades surmounted by a podium on which stands a tall attic, both of which are pierced by windows interspersed at regular intervals. The arcades are framed by half-columns of the Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian orders, while the attic is decorated with Corinthian pilasters. Each of the arches in the second- and third-floor arcades framed statues, probably honoring divinities and other figures from Classical mythology.

Two hundred and forty mast corbels were positioned around the top of the attic. They originally supported a retractable awning, known as the velarium, that kept the sun and rain off spectators. This consisted of a canvas-covered, net-like structure made of ropes, with a hole in the center. It covered two-thirds of the arena, and sloped down towards the center to catch the wind and provide a breeze for the audience. Sailors, specially enlisted from the Roman naval headquarters at Misenum and housed in the nearby Castra Misenatium, were used to work the velarium.

The Colosseum's huge crowd capacity made it essential that the venue could be filled or evacuated quickly. Its architects adopted solutions very similar to those used in modern stadiums to deal with the same problem. The amphitheatre was ringed by eighty entrances at ground level, 76 of which were used by ordinary spectators. Each entrance and exit was numbered, as was each staircase. The northern main entrance was reserved for the Roman Emperor and his aides, whilst the other three axial entrances were most likely used by the elite. All four axial entrances were richly decorated with painted stucco reliefs, of which fragments survive. Many of the original outer entrances have disappeared with the collapse of the perimeter wall, but entrances XXIII to LIV still survive.

Spectators were given tickets in the form of numbered pottery shards, which directed them to the appropriate section and row. They accessed their seats via vomitoria (singular vomitorium), passageways that opened into a tier of seats from below or behind. These quickly dispersed people into their seats and, upon conclusion of the event or in an emergency evacuation, could permit their exit within only a few minutes. The name vomitoria derived from the Latin word for a rapid discharge, from which English derives the word vomit.

Interior seating

According to the Codex-Calendar of 354, the Colosseum could accommodate 87,000 people, although modern estimates put the figure at around 50,000. They were seated in a tiered arrangement that reflected the rigidly stratified nature of Roman society. Special boxes were provided at the north and south ends respectively for the Emperor and the Vestal Virgins, providing the best views of the arena. Flanking them at the same level was a broad platform or podium for the senatorial class, who were allowed to bring their own chairs. The names of some 5th century senators can still be seen carved into the stonework, presumably reserving areas for their use.

The tier above the senators, known as the maenianum primum, was occupied by the non-senatorial noble class or knights (equites). The next level up, the maenianum secundum, was originally reserved for ordinary Roman citizens (plebians) and was divided into two sections. The lower part (the immum) was for wealthy citizens, while the upper part (the summum) was for poor citizens. Specific sectors were provided for other social groups: for instance, boys with their tutors, soldiers on leave, foreign dignitaries, scribes, heralds, priests and so on. Stone (and later marble) seating was provided for the citizens and nobles, who presumably would have brought their own cushions with them. Inscriptions identified the areas reserved for specific groups.

Another level, the maenianum secundum in legneis, was added at the very top of the building during the reign of Domitian. This comprised a gallery for the common poor, slaves and women. It would have been either standing room only, or would have had very steep wooden benches. Some groups were banned altogether from the Colosseum, notably gravediggers, actors and former gladiators.

Each tier was divided into sections (maeniana) by curved passages and low walls (praecinctiones or baltei), and were subdivided into cunei, or wedges, by the steps and aisles from the vomitoria. Each row (gradus) of seats was numbered, permitting each individual seat to be exactly designated by its gradus, cuneus, and number.

Arena and hypogeum

The arena itself was 83 metres by 48 metres (272 ft by 157 ft / 280 by 163 Roman feet). It comprised a wooden floor covered by sand (the Latin word for sand is harena or arena), covering an elaborate underground structure called the hypogeum (literally meaning "underground"). Little now remains of the original arena floor, but the hypogeum is still clearly visible. It consisted of a two-level subterranean network of tunnels and cages beneath the arena where gladiators and animals were held before contests began. Eighty vertical shafts provided instant access to the arena for caged animals and scenery pieces concealed underneath; larger hinged platforms, called hegmata, provided access for elephants and the like. It was restructured on numerous occasions; at least twelve different phases of construction can be seen.

The hypogeum was connected by underground tunnels to a number of points outside the Colosseum. Animals and performers were brought through the tunnel from nearby stables, with the gladiators' barracks at the Ludus Magnus to the east also being connected by tunnels. Separate tunnels were provided for the Emperor and the Vestal Virgins to permit them to enter and exit the Colosseum without needing to pass through the crowds.

Substantial quantities of machinery also existed in the hypogeum. Elevators and pulleys raised and lowered scenery and props, as well as lifting caged animals to the surface for release. There is evidence for the existence of major hydraulic mechanisms and according to ancient accounts, it was possible to flood the arena rapidly, presumably via a connection to a nearby aqueduct.

Supporting buildings

The Colosseum and its activities supported a substantial industry in the area. In addition to the amphitheatre itself, many other buildings nearby were linked to the games. Immediately to the east is the remains of the Ludus Magnus, a training school for gladiators. This was connected to the Colosseum by an underground passage, to allow easy access for the gladiators. The Ludus Magnus had its own miniature training arena, which was itself a popular attraction for Roman spectators. Other training schools were in the same area, including the Ludus Matutinus (Morning School), where fighters of animals were trained, plus the Dacian and Gallic Schools.
Also nearby were the Armamentarium, comprising an armory to store weapons; the Summum Choragium, where machinery was stored; the Sanitarium, which had facilities to treat wounded gladiators; and the Spoliarium, where bodies of dead gladiators were stripped of their armor and disposed of.

Around the perimeter of the Colosseum, at a distance of 18 m (59 ft) from the perimeter, was a series of tall stone posts, with five remaining on the eastern side. Various explanations have been advanced for their presence; they may have been a religious boundary, or an outer boundary for ticket checks, or an anchor for the velarium or awning.
Right next to the Colosseum is also the Arch of Constantine.

Usage

The Colosseum was used to host gladiatorial shows as well as a variety of other events. The shows, called munera, were always given by individuals rather than the state. They had a strong religious element but were also demonstration of power and family prestige, and were immensely popular with the population. Another popular type of show was the animal hunt, or venatio. This utilised a great variety of wild beasts, mainly imported from Africa, and included creatures such as rhinoceros, hippos, elephants, giraffes, lions, panthers, leopards, crocodiles and ostriches. Battles and hunts were often staged amid elaborate sets with movable trees and buildings. Such events were occasionally on a huge scale; Trajan is said to have celebrated his victories in Dacia in 107 with contests involving 11,000 animals and 10,000 gladiators over the course of 123 days.

During the early days of the Colosseum, ancient writers recorded that the building was used for naumachiae (more properly known as navalia proelia) or simulated sea battles. Accounts of the inaugural games held by Titus in AD 80 describe it being filled with water for a display of specially trained swimming horses and bulls. There is also an account of a re-enactment of a famous sea battle between the Corcyrean (Corfiot) Greeks and the Corinthians. This has been the subject of some debate among historians; although providing the water would not have been a problem, it is unclear how the arena could have been waterproofed, nor would there have been enough space in the arena for the warships to move around. It has been suggested that the reports either have the location wrong, or that the Colosseum originally featured a wide floodable channel down its central axis (which would later have been replaced by the hypogeum).

Sylvae or recreations of natural scenes were also held in the arena. Painters, technicians and architects would construct a simulation of a forest with real trees and bushes planted in the arena's floor. Animals would be introduced to populate the scene for the delight of the crowd. Such scenes might be used simply to display a natural environment for the urban population, or could otherwise be used as the backdrop for hunts or dramas depicting episodes from mythology. They were also occasionally used for executions in which the hero of the story — played by a condemned person — was killed in one of various gruesome but mythologically authentic ways, such as being mauled by beasts or burned to death.

Today

The Colosseum today is now a major tourist attraction in Rome with thousands of tourists each year paying to view the interior arena. There is now a museum dedicated to Eros located in the upper floor of the outer wall of the building. Part of the arena floor has been re-floored.

BEST HOTEL AWARD WINNER OF 2007

2007-07-17T09:13:00.000-04:00

The Oberoi Udaivilas, Udaipur

Udaipur, in the heart of Rajasthan, is a city of majestic palaces and beautiful lakes. Here, adorning the banks of Lake Pichola and standing witness to the historic City Palace, The Oberoi Udaivilas captures all the romance and splendour of a royal era.

The grand setting combined with palatial architecture and a beautiful spa offers an experience created exclusively for those who know there is nothing like too much luxury.

Travel + Leisure has released their World's Best Awards 2007 winners and the top hotel is the Oberoi Udaivilas in Udaipur, India . They were ranked the best hotel in the world with the highest overall score of 94.36. The palace hotel on the banks of Lake Pichola and is reached via boat. The resort includes fountains, pavilions, pools and balconies and is also home to a lavish luxury spa. The hotel includes 63 Premier rooms, 19 superior Premier rooms with a semi-private moated pool, and three luxury suites with a private infinity pools, tented dining pavilions and a view of the City Palace horizon. The most lavish suite is the Kohinoor Suite with 2,650 square feet of space includes fountained courtyards, a large private pool, sitting room with real fireplaces, and a master suite with its own wooden sauna.

ROOMS AND SUITES

At the first level are sixty-three richly appointed Premier rooms, all with private walled courtyards, complete with silken parasols, table and chairs. Inlaid furniture, Rajput inspired decoration and marble bathrooms help to create a luxurious haven for our guests.
Nineteen superior Premier rooms open onto the beautiful semi-private moated pool that meanders past the terraces. From here guests overlook either Lake Pichola or the wildlife sanctuary at the rear of the hotel.
Higher up, the Luxury Suites with Private Pool, Great Mogul, Orloff and Regent, each 1,150 sq ft, have private infinity pools and tented dining pavilions. These suites have an unrivalled view of the City Palace horizon. Here you will enjoy the privilege of private staff – your very own butler.
The jewel in the Udaipur crown is the Kohinoor Suite with Private Pool, 2,650 square feet of palatial comfort. With its fountained courtyards, massive private pool, sitting room with real fireplaces, and master suite with its own wooden sauna it is fit for Royalty.
Room Types
Premier Rooms
Premier Lake View Rooms
Luxury Suites with Private Pool
Kohinoor Suite with Private Pool

DINING

Fine international cusine, authentic flavours of rajasthan or a quiet drink are all presented with views of the City Palace and Lake Pichola.
Our Executive Chef aims to satisfy every palate with the very best of International and Indian Cuisine. You will eat like a Maharana. The Udaivilas Chefs are trained directly under the few chefs to royalty that exist in Rajasthan today.

UDAIMAHAL
Our speciality Indian Restaurant where guests dine by candlelight on a rich variety of traditional, Rajasthani and North Indian fare in regal surroundings.

SURYAMAHAL
The informal 30s style restaurant is open all day. The menu here is a fusion of light Western, Mediterranean and Thai style dishes.

CHANDNI
This dining courtyard adjoins the restaurants where guests can enjoy open air dining with traditional music and dance performances in the evening.

BAR
Relax in the refinement of the Bar which offers a variety of spirits, wines and cigars.

PICNICS
More adventurous guests can take a picnic lunch basket onto a private gondola.

PRIVATE DINNING
Or even, most decadent of all, take a party of friends to cocktalks or dinner on the Bhagwanti Royal Barge, floating to the islands across Lake Pichola. Alternatively you can enjoy lunch round the main swimming pool or in the Spa Courtyard. Of course there is always the option of oaring round the clock from the privacy of your room, suite or private dining pavilion.

AWARDS

Top 100 Hotels in the World (Ranked 3rd)
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Travel + Leisure, World’s Best Awards Readers’ Survey 2006
World’s Top 25 Spas (Ranked 14th )
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Condé Nast Traveller, UK, Readers’ Spa Awards 2006
Hotel of the Year 2003
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Gallivanter’s Guide, Editor’s Choice Award 2004
Best New Hotel/Resort Discovery (Ranked 3rd)
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Gallivanter’s Guide, Award for Excellence 2005
101 Best Hotels in the World
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Tatler Travel Guide 2006
Top Resorts in Asia (Ranked 6th)
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Condé Nast Traveler, USA, 18th Annual Readers’ Travel Awards 2005
The Best Destinations of 2003
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Forbes Magazine 2004
Best Suites Award
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Elite Traveller Award 2004
Top 50 Coolest New Hotels in the World
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Condé Nast Traveller 2003
Winner of Spa Sanctuaries Category
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Harper Abroad Travel Supplement 2003
Hot List
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Condé Nast Traveller 2003
101 Best Hotels: New Sensations
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Tatler Travel Guide 2003
‘One in a Million’ Rating
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Gallivanter’s Guide 2002
100 Fabulous Places for 2001(Ranked 12th)
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Travel + Leisure 2001

LOCATION

The Oberoi, Udaivilâs is located on the banks of Lake Pichola in Udaipur of Rajasthan, a Northwest province of India. Udaipur, also called the City of Dawn, surrounded by the ancient Arravali Mountains and set on the edge of three lakes, is a brilliant kaleidoscope of narrow lanes flanked by bright stalls, gardens, lakes, palaces and temples. The resort is about 4 kilometers from the city center (Court Square).

How to reach Oberoi udaivilas in Udaipur

BY AIR

Udaipur’s Dabok airport is 30 kilometers from the resort and the drive takes 45 minutes. Udaipur is well connected to New Delhi and Mumbai with daily flights operated by Jet Airways and Indian Airlines. The flying time from Udaipur to Delhi (via Jaipur) is two hours and thirty-five minutes and from Udaipur to Mumbai is one hour and fifteen minutes. Udaipur is also well connected by air to Jaipur with a flying time of slightly more than an hour.

BY ROAD

The drive from Udaipur to Jaipur takes approximately eight hours and to Jodhpur it takes five hours. Jaipur to Delhi takes approximately four hours and Jodhpur to Delhi takes about eleven hours. The drive from Jaipur to Agra is approximately five hours.

BY RAIL

The Oberoi, Udaivilâs is approximately 8 kilometers from Udaipur railway station. The travel time by train from New Delhi to Udaipur is approximately 12 hours by Mewar Express.

HISTORICAL TREKKING

2007-07-08T03:52:00.000-04:00

What is Historical Trekking?

Historical Trekking (also called Period Trekking, Experimental Archeology, or Experiential Anthropology) is a hobby where we as 21st century people attempt a task someone in our chosen time period would have done, using only the tools and equipment they would have used, or the knowledge we have gleaned from research. Whether you are interested in the Longhunter of the 18th Century and you are out on a hunt using only period clothing and flintlock, or if your interest lies in the Mountainman of the 19th Century, and you want to use period traps to try and catch beaver, even if your interest is in cooking, and you limit yourself to the kitchen-ware and foods of your chosen period and a bed of coals for heat, yet you never leave your house, you are involved with the hobby of Historical Trekking. This hobby gives us more insight into the daily lives of the people in our chosen time period, and helps to make us better historians .

World Tourism Day

2007-07-02T11:37:00.000-04:00

Since 1980, September 27 is celebrated by the World Tourism Organization as World Tourism Day. It was established at the Third Session of the UNWTO General Assembly in Torremolinos, Spain, in September of 1979. The purpose of this day is to display awareness that tourism is vital to the international community and to show how it affects the social, cultural, political and economic values worldwide. September 27 is important since on that day in 1970, the Statutes of the WTO were adopted. The adoption of the statutes is considered to be a milestone in global tourism.

At its Twelfth Session in Istanbul, Turkey, in October of 1997, the UNWTO General Assembly decided to designate a host country each year as the Organization's partner for celebrating World Tourism Day.

At its Fifteenth Session in Beijing, China, in October of 2003, the Assembly decided the following geographic order to be followed for the World Tourism Day celebrations: 2006 in Europe; 2007 in South Asia; 2008 in the Americas, and 2009 in Africa.

What is backpacking?

2007-06-30T14:38:00.000-04:00

A backpacker packs all of his or her gear into a backpacK. This gear must include food, water, and shelter, or the means to obtain them, but very little else, and often in a more compact and simpler form than one would use for stationary camping. A backpacking trip must include at least one overnight stay in the wilderness (otherwise it is a day hike). Many backpacking trips last just a weekend (one or two nights), but long-distance expeditions may last weeks or months, sometimes aided by planned food and supply drops.
Backpacking camps are more spartan than ordinary camps. In areas that experience a regular traffic of backpackers, a hike-in camp might have a fire ring and a small wooden bulletin board with a map and some warning or information signs. Many hike-in camps are no more than level patches of ground without scrub or underbrush. In very remote areas, established camps do not exist at all, and travelers must choose appropriate camps themselves.
In some places, backpackers have access to lodging that are more substantial than a tent. In the more remote parts of Great Britain, bothies exist to provide simple (free) accommodation for backpackers. Another example is the High Sierra Camps in Yosemite National Park. Mountain huts provide similar accommodation in other countries, so being a member of a mountain hut organization is advantageous (perhaps required) to make use of their facilities. On other trails (e.g. the Appalachian Trail) there are somewhat more established shelters of a sort that offer a place for weary hikers to spend the night without needing to set up a tent.
Most backpackers purposely try to avoid impacting on the land through which they travel. This includes following established trails as much as possible, not removing anything, and not leaving residue in the backcountry. The Leave No Trace movement offers a set of guidelines for low-impact backpacking ("Leave nothing but footprints. Take nothing but photos. Kill nothing but time"...)

PROFESSIONAL BACKPACKING

For some people, backpacking is a necessary and integral part of their job.
In the military a framed backpack is referred to as a "rucksack" or simply a "ruck". Soldiers who serve in the militaries of most nation-states usually receive at least some rudimentary backpacking training while infantrymen are often trained to a more advanced backpacking skill level. They share many common attributes with amateur backpackers: being self-contained, use of land-navigation skills and actively minimizing their environmental foot-print. Although there are also a few differences such as the need to carry an assault rifle, other weapons, ammunition and communication equipment as well as at times maintaining "noise and light discipline", which means remaining silent and in darkness to avoid detection.
Other professional backpackers may be scientific and academic researchers, professional guides, photographers, park-rangers and "search & rescue" personnel.

WINTER BACKPACKING

Although backpacking in the winter is rewarding, it can be dangerous and generally requires more gear. Backpackers may need skis or snowshoes to traverse deep snow, or crampons to cross ice. Cotton clothing, which absorbs moisture and chills the body, is particularly dangerous in cold weather, so backpackers stick to synthetic materials or materials that won't hold moisture. Special low-temperature sleeping bags and tents can be expensive, but will be more comfortable than many layers of warm clothing. However when hiking in cold weather it is always better to hike with varying layers of clothing so that as the body heats up layers can be taken off without causing the wearer to sweat or become very chilled.

How to reach kerala

2007-06-28T13:04:00.000-04:00

Different ways to reach God`s own country (Kerala)......

Air : Thiruvananthapuram and Cochin are International Airports and Calicut has international services to several destinations in Gulf. Daily flights are operated from Thiruvananthapuram to Singapore, Colombo, Male, Muscat, Bahrain, Kuwait, Abu Dhabi and Dubai. International airlines operating from Thiruvananthapuram are Gulf Air, Qatar Airways, Singapore Airlines, Air Lanka, Air Maldives and Air India. Cochin, is air-connected with Delhi, Mumbai, Bangalore, Chennai, Mali and Goa. Airports are in the outskirts of the cities. Pre-paid taxi service is available in the airports.

Rail : Trains chug off from Kerala to all regions in India including North- East and Jammu Kashmir. Thiruvananthapuram, Kochi, Shornur and Kozhikode are the major stations in the state. The Konkan Rail line along the Western coast connects Kerala to Mumbai and North- West states. Kollam-Madurai and Shornur-- Erode lines also connect Kerala with other states.

For more info check http://www.indianrail.gov.in/

Road : The state's road network comprises of five National Highways, dozens of state highways, major district roads and thousands of village roads. NH 47 starts from Kanyakumari in Tamilnadu and ends in Coimbathore running through five districts of the state. NH 17 starts from Edappally in Ernakulam, lacerates six districts before entering Karnataka at Mangalore. N H 49 Kochi--Madurai, N H 212 Kozhikode- Kollegal( near Mysore), and NH 213 Kozhikode- Palakkad are the other National Highways in Kerala. State owned Road Transport Corporation, KSRTC, runs round- the-clock services to all major destinations in the state besides plying buses to several metros in Karnataka and Tamilnadu. All district headquarters and several other cities have KSRTC bus stations. The Corporation runs super fast, super express and fast passenger services, each with different ticket rates. Private passenger bus service is concentrated on village routes and city routes. Bus charge is fixed by the Government from time to time and the rate is similar all over the state. Taxi vehicles( car, jeep, cab) are available round- the- clock near all bus, railway stations.

Travel and tourism - Upcoming events in India

2007-06-25T22:00:00.000-04:00

1) India International Travel Mart (IITM Bangalore)

India's one of the prominent International Travel & Tourism Mart, India International Travel Mart (IITM) brings people together to promote Inbound, Outbound and Domestic Tourism in unique style. IITM offer unlimited opportunities for everyone to Explore, Market and Publicize their destination/ product/ organization at one place.

Date: 21-JUL-07 to 23-JUL-07
Location: Banglore Exhibition Center, Bangalore.

Organizer:
Travel Media Networks
473, 2nd Floor, 2nd cross, 9th Main, HAL 2nd Stage, Indira Nagar
Bangalore, Karnataka - 560 0308 (

India

)
Phone: +(91)-(80)-41152215
Fax: +(91)-(80)-25290708

2) India International Travel Mart (IITM Chennai)

India's one of the prominent International Travel & Tourism Mart, India International Travel Mart (IITM) brings people together to promote Inbound, Outbound and Domestic Tourism in unique style. IITM offer unlimited opportunities for everyone to Explore, Market and Publicize their destination/ product/ organization at one place.

Date: 27-JUL-07 to 29-JUL-07
Location: Chennai Exhibition Center, Chennai.

Organizer:

Travel Media Networks
473, 2nd Floor, 2nd cross, 9th Main, HAL 2nd Stage, Indira Nagar
Bangalore, Karnataka - 560 0308 (India)
Phone: +(91)-(80)-41152215
Fax: +(91)-(80)-25290708

3) India International Travel Exhibition (IITE-Indore)

India International Travel Exhibition (IITE), an exhibition series on Tourism exchange, a platform where the upward moving, high earning Mid level city consumers will interact with your Tourism Board, Travel Partners and Affiliated service providers, thus promoting the beauty and the benefits of your destination. IITE, an annual, travel and tourism exhibition show will be held for the fast growing Net worth consumers of the mid level Indian Cities with respect to their travel and Leisure needs.

Date: 03-AUG-07 to 05-AUG-07
Location: Indore Exhibition Center, Indore.

Organizer:
GTFC
348, Amar Jyoti Layout
Bangalore, Karnataka - 560 071 (India)
Phone: +(91)-(80)-41483066
Fax: +(91)-(80)-41483066

4) Travel & Tourism Fair-Kolkata

TTF is India's leading exhibition for the travel & tourism industry. Since 1989,it provides an annual opportunity for organisations from India and abroad to showcase their products and services to a large cross section of the travel trade and consumers across major markets in India.

Date: 10-AUG-07 to 12-AUG-07
Location: Netaji Indoor Stadium, Kolkata.

Organizer:
Fairfest Media Limited
E-8, Green Park
New Delhi, Delhi - 110 016 (India)
Phone: +(91)-(11)-26866874/26866875
Fax: +(91)-(11)-26868073

5) Travel & Tourism Fair-Hyderabad

Date: 17-AUG-07 to 19-AUG-07
Location: Hitex Exhibition Centre, Hyderabad.

Organizer:
Fairfest Media Limited
E-8, Green Park
New Delhi, Delhi - 110 016 (India)
Phone: +(91)-(11)-26866874/26866875
Fax: +(91)-(11)-26868073

6) India Travel Mart-Jaipur

India's one of the prominent International Travel & Tourism Mart, India Travel Mart (ITM) brings people together to promote Inbound, Outbound and Domestic Tourism in unique style. ITM offer unlimited opportunities for everyone to Explore, Market and Publicize their destination/ product/ organization at one place.

Date: 24-AUG-07 to 26-AUG-07
Location: International Exhibition Center, Jaipur.

Organizer:
India Travel Mart
Secretariat India Travel Mart (ITM), E-46, 3rd Floor, Naraina Vihar
New Delhi, Delhi - 110 028 (India)
Phone: +(91)-(11)-25897594/25897596
Fax: +(91)-(11)-25897597

7) India Travel Mart-Ahmedabad

Date: 07-SEP-07 to 09-SEP-07
Location: International Exhibition Center, Ahmedabad.

Organizer:
India Travel Mart
Secretariat India Travel Mart (ITM), E-46, 3rd Floor, Naraina Vihar
New Delhi, Delhi - 110 028 (India)
Phone: +(91)-(11)-25897594/25897596
Fax: +(91)-(11)-25897597

8) India International Travel Mart (IITM Mumbai)

Date: 08-SEP-07 to 10-SEP-07
Location: World Trade Centre, Mumbai.

Organizer:
Travel Media Networks
473, 2nd Floor, 2nd cross, 9th Main, HAL 2nd Stage, Indira Nagar
Bangalore, Karnataka - 560 0308 (India)
Phone: +(91)-(80)-41152215
Fax: +(91)-(80)-25290708

Please do checking my blog for more updates.....

Cheers

Raaash

God's Own Country - Kerala, India

2007-06-23T15:51:00.001-04:00

Kerala (Malayalam: കേരളം; Kēraḷaṁ) is a state on the Malabar Coast of southwestern India. To its east and northeast, Kerala borders Tamil Nadu and Karnataka respectively; to its west and south lie the Arabian Sea and the Indian Ocean with the islands of Lakshadweep and the Maldives, respectively. Kerala envelops Mahé, a coastal exclave of Pondicherry. Kerala is one of the four states of South India.

...

The Chera kings' dependence on trade meant that merchants from West Asia established coastal posts and settlements in Kerala. Many — especially Jews and Christians — also escaped persecution, establishing the Nasrani Mappila and Muslim Mappila communities. According to several scholars, the Jews first arrived in Kerala in 573 BC. The works of scholars and Eastern Christian writings state that Thomas the Apostle visited Muziris in Kerala in 52 CE to proselytize amongst Kerala's Jewish settlements. However, the first verifiable migration of Jewish-Nasrani families to Kerala is of the arrival of Knai Thoma in 345 CE. Muslim merchants settled in Kerala by the 8th century CE. After Vasco Da Gama's arrival in 1498, the Portuguese sought to control the lucrative pepper trade by subduing Keralite communities and commerce.

Kerala's 38,863 km² landmass (1.18% of India) is wedged between the Arabian Sea to the west and the Western Ghats — identified as one of the world's twenty-five biodiversity hotspots — to the east. Lying between north latitudes 8°18' and 12°48' and east longitudes 74°52' and 72°22', Kerala is well within the humid equatorial tropics. Kerala's coast runs for some 580 km (360 miles), while the state itself varies between 35 and 120 km (22--75 miles) in width. Geographically, Kerala can be divided into three climatically distinct regions: the eastern highlands (rugged and cool mountainous terrain), the central midlands (rolling hills), and the western lowlands (coastal plains). Located at the extreme southern tip of the Indian subcontinent, Kerala lies near the centre of the Indian tectonic plate; as such, most of the state is subject to comparatively little seismic and volcanic activity. Geologically, pre-Cambrian and Pleistocene formations compose the bulk of Kerala's terrain.

Shyama sundara Kera.......

2007-06-16T13:54:00.001-04:00

check out dis vedio.... dis is an interesting vedio... u can c the beauty of kerala... dis song was composed by A.R Rahman.....

Kerala......! " God's Own Country"

2007-06-14T13:33:00.000-04:00

Kerala, formed in 1956, is one of the smallest states in the Republic of India. The state has 14 districts and the capital is in Thiruvananthapuram. Kerala is a land of great natural beauty. The country has the highest rate of literacy (100%) among Indian states.Graced by the Arabian Sea on the west, the Western Ghats on the east and networked by forty-four rivers, Kerala lies on the southern tip of the Indian peninsula. Kerala is a land of great natural beauty. It is the ideal place to visit during your tour to South India.

The ancient history of Kerala is shrouded in the mists of tradition. The most popular legend would have it that the land crust that forms the state was raised from the depths of the ocean by Parasurama, the Brahmin avatar (incarnation) of Lord Vishnu and hence the sobriquet - "God's own Country". Thus during your tour to Kerala you get an opportunity to be a part of this culturally rich country.

Today, Kerala is one of the best-known tour destinations in the world tourism map. From mind-blowing landscapes to infinite intriguing customs, high-intensity cultural life to the educated public, holidays and tour in Kerala is a unique experience in itself.

Kerala is also famous for spices. Coz of dis Kerala is also known as Spice Garden.

About Kerala

Capital - Thiruvananthapuram
Area - 38,863 Sq. Km
Length - 575 km
Language - Malayalam, English
Location - South west tip of the India's main land
Time - GMT +5.30
Currency - Indian Rupees
Weather - Tropical
Summer - February - May (24 - 33 degree Celsius)
Winter - October - January (22 - 28degree Celsius)
Monsoon - June - September (22 - 28 degree Celsius)
High Season - December - May
Number of Districts - Fourteen
Population - 29,011,237 lakhs as per the 1991 census (20.011237 Millions)
Density of population - 749 per sq kms; second largest in India
Kerala's share in the national Population - 3.44 percent
District average - 20.78 lakhs (2.078 millions)
Sex ration - 1036 women for 1000 men.
Study prediction - Zero population growth in three decades
Average size of Family - 5.3 person
Literacy rate - 89.81 per cent
Male literacy rate - 93.62 per cent
Female literacy rate - 86.17 per cent
Major Port - Kochi
Airports - Thiruvanananthapuram, Nedumbassery, Kozhikode
Road - State owned bus, private bus, tourist taxi, regular taxi, auto rickshaw, private vehicles,erry services. The State is linked with railways.
Beaches - Kovalam, Varkala, Cherai, Alleppey, Kappad, Shanghumugham, Thirumullavaram and Bekal
Sanctuaries - Periyar, Thekkady, Aralam, Parambikulam, Wayanad, Idukki, Silent Valley, Thattekad, Eravikulam, Chinnar, Peppara, Peechi-Vazhani, Neyyar and Kumarakom
Hill Stations - Ponmudi, Peermade, Thekkady, Munnar, Wayanad and Devikulam
Cash Crops - Rubber, Coffee, Tea, Cardamom, Pepper and Cashew Other products Coir, Handloom, Handicrafts, Metal Mirror and fibre products.

Yes itz a TraVel and TouRism Blog

2007-06-14T12:09:00.001-04:00

hi folks.....

eeehh..... This is a travel and tourism blog, where you can find interesting travel places for your leisure trip.

Aw....!!! I forgot to introduce myself.... I`m doin my graduation in Tourism and Travel Management aka TTM in Ethiraj Womens College Chennai.I Luv trekking and travelling.

Hope dis blog will be more helpfull for those who are searching for tourism places in India. I luv to go adventures places.As every one me too luv Nature.

So keep checking my blog for more updates and do comment....

Cheers...
Raaash...